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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



COMPEEHENSIVE 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



FOE 



Schools, Colleges, Families and 
Private Students 



p: 



/ 



BY 




CHARLES GAUSS and B. T. HODGE 

*. 9 



BALTIMORE 
PAN PUBLICATION CO. 

1890 



Tgi"' 



G* r 



Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1889, 

By CHARLES GAUSS AND B. T. HODGE, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 



PRESS AND BINDERY OF 
I8AAC FRIEDENWALD, BALTIMORE. 



PEEFACE. 

The most important item of secular human knowledge is 
no doubt the sentence. Grammar ; which treats of the 
construction, use and application of the sentence; is the 
sweetest of sciences. As a thought and a sentence are exact 
counterparts of each other, the one having its existence 
within and the other without the mind; so Psychology, 
which treats of the one, and Grammar, which treats of the 
other, are correlative branches of learning and together have 
a parental relation to all other sciences. 

To the scientific mind nothing affords more gratification 
than the analysis of any generality and, for the exercise of 
this power, neither Botany, Logic nor Chemistry affords a 
finer field than Grammar. The analysis of the sentence into 
its elements is most interesting. As ; in the granulation of 
the diamond, iceland spar or any other crystal ; the grains and, 
in its pulverization, each particle of dust, invisible to the 
natural eye, are seen, under the microscope, to possess the 
same crystalline form as the original: so ; in separating a com- 
plex sentence into its elements, these into their elements, these 
into theirs and so on to the last and least word ; each part is 
found to have the same things true of it, that are true of the 
original sentence. 

What, in rounded development and symmetrical pro- 
portions, can rival one of the splendid sentences of Demos- 
thenes, Macaulay or Milton? Nothing but the sublime 
thought, of which it is the outward expression. One of 
these complicated thoughts or complex sentences is not 
like a lone and limbless tree, having too much unity and 
so too sublime, nor like a clump of bramble-bushes, having 
too much variety of parts and so too grotesque, but it is like 
" A tree planted by the rivers of water," perfectly beautiful. 
The sentence ; like the English common law, a result of 



IV PEEFAGE. 

the combined wisdom of ages ; ought to be a splendid struc- 
ture. In offering to the public this treatise upon the sen- 
tence, the result of many years' study of English and other 
languages ; the authors flatter themselves, that it will merit 
a most thorough examination and trial. 

In our practical age, things are estimated by, what they 
can do. A steamship's value is estimated by its carrying 
the maximum cargo the maximum distance in the minimum 
of time. The authors wish to have the work, which they 
here present, tested by this principle. They claim : that, 
when followed, this Grammar will increase tenfold the 
number of persons, who have it in their power to acquire a 
mastery of their Mother-tongue ; because the book, written 
in interrogatories and answers like a catechism, is tenfold 
easier to learn and tenfold easier to teach. 

Many educated persons, having engaged in teaching, have 
candidly acknowledged their inability to teach Grammar 
and a classical instructor, of the highest order of ability 
and widest reputation, always relied upon the Latin and 
Greek Grammars to teach his pupils English; because, 
he said, there was no text-book on the subject. This 
book can be successfully taught even by teachers, who 
would not otherwise be able to grapple with the subject. 
TWO PERSONS, WHO CAN EEAD WELL, CAN MAS- 
TER THIS BOOK BY TEACHING EACH OTHER. 
The father can teach the child, if necessary, and the child 
the father and two children in a family can teach each other. 
At the same time the depth of the treatise and the very high 
degree of proficiency in English, to which it leads, make the 
system altogether worthy of the educated, able and experi- 
enced teacher. 

A military education cannot be acquired by the reading of 
text-books nor by lectures. A youth can be fitted for high 
rank in the army of his country only by adding to his other 
instruction the most rigid drilling-. This applies in an 
equally strong and peculiar sense to Grammar. Grammar 
cannot be taught without drilling. So the authors claim 



PREFACE. 



again : that this treatise will increase tenfold each student's 
advantages and possibilities in obtaining a complete knowl- 
edge of English; because, after he has mastered the language 
Definitions in answer to the questions, the facts and principles 
are tenfold more firmly and indelibly riveted upon his mind 
by four rapid and happy drills called Word-analysis, 
Parsing, Sentence-analysis and Scanning. 

In these Four Charming Drills, the learner exercises 
himself; until he becomes perfectly familiar with the Orthog- 
raphy, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody of the language and 
until this familiarity exists not only in his mind but extends 
also to his eye in reading, his tongue in speaking and his fingers 
in writing the Mother-tongue. A class of ten persons of 
thirteen years of age : who have been carefully instructed for 
ten months in this system; which, as a pure science evolved 
out of nature, is so well adapted to the laws of mind; 
will write on a blackboard a stanza of poetry or ten lines 
of Milton, which they have had two hours to look over. 
They will then, not like a parrot but fully understanding 
the principles involved, go over the entire piece of lan- 
guage; first in Word-analysis, second in Parsing, third 
in Sentence-analysis and fourth in Scanning. When 
they have finished the Four Drills, an examining board, in 
whose presence they were performed, can ask them no ques- 
tion upon this piece of language, which they have not already 
answered in the mere course of The Drills. 
■ A youth of natural intelligence cannot be so rustic and so 
destitute of early culture; that he cannot, by mastering this 
system, burst the fetters of habit and free himself from this 
galling slavery. He soon reaches such a degree of progress: 
that mistakes of either Orthography, Etymology, Syntax or 
Prosody ; made in writing, conversation or public speaking ; 
jar and grate so painfully upon his practiced ear and eye, 
that the chains of his own early bad habits naturally drop off. 
One, who has learned this system, will soon acquire such 
readiness in English ; that, rapid and pleasing as the vocal 
Drills are, he will not even have to stop to perform them but 



VI PREFACE. 

can, merely by the eye in reading Milton or other lan- 
guage, solve every difficulty that lies on the page before him. 
He can then also learn Latin and Greek more than twice as 
rapidly as before ; because, when he can analyze merely at 
sight the sublime sentences of Milton, all, he will have to 
do, will be to learn the Latin and Greek forms and vocabu- 
lary and then the sentences of Caesar and Xenophon will 
tumble to pieces into their elements before his practiced eye. 

As Chemistry has to be learned, before its applications 
Agriculture and Medicine, and Mathematics, before its appli- 
cations Astronomy and Engineering: so this system; being, 
in the first part though incidentally, a good treatise upon 
Voice Culture and, in the third part, a good system of 
instruction upon the Writing or Composing of sentences and 
their elements; gives the pupil a very high preparation for 
the advanced study of Grammar's great applications Com- 
position, Elocution and the Great English Poets. 

In reference to punctuation, the authors desire the reader 
to withhold his judgment ; until he has studied the system 
set forth in this book, which is based upon and used to 
make manifest to the eye the analysis of the sentence. This 
system, while exceedingly simple and easy to master, will 
be found to be as exact as a demonstration in mathematics. 
They also claim, as a new and good feature, the Syntax 
Tree ; which follows and, as an illustration, explains Sen- 
tence-analysis in Part Third. 

This treatise is concise in its entire style but this will, if 
the plan is followed, be an advantage rather than a disad- 
vantage ; because a book is oftenvaluable as much on account 
of, what is left out of it, as on account of, what it contains. 

The world is now tired of that extreme, which excludes 
memorizing from systems of education. The analysis and 
application of knowledge is a matter, of thought and pupils 
cannot analyze and apply knowledge; which they do not 
possess but which lies only, if anywhere, in the mind of the 
teacher. The motto of the authors is ; first memorize, then 
analyze and then apply the knowledge. The answers to the 



PREFACE. Vll 

questions are language definitions and must be carefully 
committed to memory, before the Drills are reached, and 
each of the Four Parts must be finished, before the next is 
taken up. Persons however, wishing so to do, can reverse the 
order of the first and second parts and commence with the 
Etymology. Each part is a separate and complete treatise in 
itself and each can be used without the others, if necessary. 

In the conclusion of the book, the selections there given 
must have the Four Drills applied to them separately and 
each in its order, as laid down in the body of the work. If the 
system is not used in accordance with the directions given, the 
authors should not be held responsible; if such results are not 
attained, as may be reasonably expected from a proper use of 
the book. The truth, of what is claimed for this book, will, 
if necessary, be demonstrated ; by testing it in the instruction 
of classes according to the system and submitting the result 
to the inspection of disinterested, competent persons. 

Being comprehensive, it is adapted to the instruction and 
mental training of even young children. No child can 
learn grammar in any text-look, until he can read, and that is 
the only qualification needed for commencing in this work. If 
a child cannot learn an entire lesson for one recitation, he 
should have only a part of it. If not the half, the fourth. 
If not the fourth, then the eighth. If not so much as this, 
he should have but one question and answer. If he cannot 
learn this for one recitation, he should be drilled on the 
same question and answer for several days. As soon as he has 
learned one, he will wish of his own accord to go on, without 
being pushed by the teacher. By this careful method chil- 
dren ten years old have even mastered the forms of the Latin 
and Greek grammars. 

A cadet has to practice his drills over and over, before his 
education is complete ; so any repetitions, which may appear 
in this work, will be explained by its plan as a Drill-book. 

PART FIEST consists of catechetical instructions in 
Orthography; followed by selections of poetry for Word- 
analysis, every word of which is to be carefully analyzed 



Vlll PREFACE. 

according to the concise Schemes or Charts given and the 
explanations or Models following them. 

PART SECOND consists of catechetical instructions in 
Etymology with a few lessons in Syntax, followed by the 
same selections of poetry for Parsing, every word of which 
is to be carefully Parsed according to the concise Schemes 
or Charts given and the explanations or Models following 
them. 

PART THIRD consists of catechetical instructions in 
Syntax pure ; followed by the same selections of poetry for 
Sentence-analysis, every word of which is to be carefully 
Analyzed according to the concise Schemes or Charts 
given and the explanations or Models following them. 

PART FOURTH consists of catechetical instructions in 
Prosody ; followed by the same selections of poetry for Scan- 
ning, every verse of which is to be carefully Scanned 
according to the concise Schemes or Charts given and the 
explanations or Models following them. 

The authors have deemed it best for those, who will use 
this work as a preparation for the more advanced study of 
philology in other text-books, to preserve intact, so far as 
consistent with their plan, the time-honored definitions, the 
phraseology and the general nomenclature of English ; 
which have passed through and constituted the framework 
of all the Grammars, that have appeared since the days 
of Murray. So to their predecessors, who have produced 
good Grammars of the English Language, the authors 
acknowledge indebtedness but they have adopted such an 
original plan of presentation and application : as has been 
found and can be demonstrated to produce ; with the min- 
imum time, labor, discouragement and expense; the very 
maximum results in the mastery of our Mother-tongue. 
The mechanical execution of the work will commend it to 
every lover of excellence in the typographical art. With the 
assurance; that the treatise, if properly used, will produce even 
greater results, than have been promised ; it is respectfully 
submitted to the public by 

The Authors. 



CONTENTS 



Introductory Matter. 

Title-page i 

Copyright Entry , . ii 

Preface ...... iii 

General or Outline Lesson 13 

PART FIRST.— WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 



First Division. 




Lesson. 


Question. 


Page. 






I 


7 


14 


" Speech 




II 


2 


15 


Second and Third Divisions. 












III 




17 


Table of Letters, Letter Groups and Marks.. 


IV 


,. 


19 




V 




20 






VII 
VII 


8 
21 


23 


Vowels « 




24 






VII 
VIII 


25 


24 


Classes of Consonants, Diphthongs 


25 


Digraphs, Triphthongs and Trigraphs 


IX 




27 


Classes and Sounds of Letters, A and B 


X 




29 


" " " " 


CandD 


X 




30 


" " " »* 


B, Fand G.... 


XII 




32 


" " " " 


G, Hand I.... 


XIII 




33 


" " " " 


J, K and L 


XIV 




35 


" " " " 


M, NandO.... 


XV 




36 


" " " " 


P, Q, R and S, 


XVI 




39 


" " " " 


TandU 


XVII 


.. 


41 


'♦ " " " 


V, W, X and Y, 


XVIII 




42 


U U It It 


ZandTh 


XIX 




44 


" " " " 


PhandWh ... 


XX 




46 


" " " " 


Gh,NgandSh, 


XXI 


.. 


48 


" " Diphthongs and Di- 








graphs 


XXII 


.. 


50 


" " " Triphthongs and Tri- 








graphs 


XXIII 




52 




XXIV 




54 


Table of Letters and Sounds . 




XXV 




55 


Table of Substitutes 




XXVI 
XXIX 




56 


Irregular Letters and Groups 
Names of Letters 




59 




XXX 




61 






XXX 
XXXII 




63 






64 


Fourth and Fifth Divisions. 














XXXVII 




67 


Spelling 




XXXVIII 


.. 


69 


Syllabification 




XXXIX 




70 






XL 




72 






XL VII 




74 


Scheme for Spelling 




XLVII 


9 


75 


Phonetic Spelling 




XLVII1 


1 


75 



CONTENTS. 



Analysis of Syllables. 

Scheme for the Analysis of a Syllable 

Analysis of " Fringe " 

" "Veil" 

" "Seal" 

Syllables to be Analyzed 

Word-analysis. 

Scheme for Analyzing a Word 

Analysis of " Transfigure " 

" " "Unbroken" 

Words to be Analyzed 

Selections for Drilling in Word-ana- 
lysis 



Lesson. 

XLIX 

L 

L 

L 

LVII 

LV1I 

LVI1I 

LIX 

LXV 



Question. 



Page. 

77 



PART SECOND.— PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 
First and Second Divisions. 

Definitions, Parts of Speech 

Substance, Qualities, the Noun 

The Noun.— Gender, Person and Number — 

" " Rules for Plurals, Case 

" " Case, Declensions 

" Pronoun. — Diagram of Pronouns 

" Adjective.— Classes, Comparison 

" Verb 

" " Voice and Mood 

" " Tense 

" " Person and Number, Conjugation, 

" " List of Irregular Verbs 

" Adverb 

" Participle 

" Preposition 

List of Prepositions 

The Conjunction 

Connectives 

The Interjection 

Third Division. 

Home Derivation 



Prefixes 

Suffixes 

Derivatives. 

Separate Radicals or Roots 
Inseparable Radicals or Roots . 

The word " Press " 

Compounds 

Temporary Compounds 

Permanent " 



Fourth Division. 

Foreign Derivation , 
Lessons in Syntax. 

Syntax 

Relation in Syntax. . 

Government 

Limitation 

Connection 

Rules of Syntax .... 



I 


18 


90 


II 


1 


92 


III 




94 


IV 




95 


V 




97 


VIII 




100 


XIX 




112 
120 


XXV 




122 


XXVI 




124 


XXVIII 




128 


LII 




148 


LXI 




156 


LXIII 




162 


LXIV 




165 


LXVIII 




169 


LXIX 




169 


LXX 




171 


LXXI 




173 


LXXII 




176 


LXXII 


3 


176 


LXXII 


5 


176 


LXXII 


8 


176 


LXXII 


11 


177 


LXXIII 


10 


178 


LXXI1I 


11 


179 


LXXIV 


13 


180 


LXXIV 


26 


181 


LXXIV 


29 


181 


LXXIV 


29 


181 


LXXV 


1 


181 


LXXVI 


1 


183 


LXXVT 


2 


183 


LXXVI 


9 


184 


LXXVI 


12 


184 


LXXVI 
LXXXIX 


17 


184 
197 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



Supplement to Part Second, so-called Subjunc- 
tive Mood 

Schemes for Parsing 

Parsing 

Selections for Parsing- 



Lesson. 

XCII 

XCIV 

CVII 

CXXIV 



Question. Page. 



201 



209 
230 



PART THIRD -SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 



General Definitions — Government I 

Relation I 

Government I 

Limitation Ill 

Connection V 

Rules of Syntax VII 

Punctuation VIII 

The Sentence XII 

The Element XIII 

The Absolute Element XIV 

The Subject Element XV 

The Predicate Element XVI 

The Adjective Element XVII 

The Adverbial Element XVIII 

The Objective Element XIX 

The Elements Combined XX 

The Proposition— Kinds of Elements XXX 

The Phrase XXXI 

TheClause XXXIII 

The Complex Sentence XXXIV 

Kinds of Clauses XXXV 

The Subordinate Clause XXXVII 



18 



Limitation of Elements , 

The Application of Punctuation 

Order of Elements 

Scheme for Analyzing the Sentence . 
Scheme for Analyzing the Element . 

How to Apply the Schemes 

Drilling in Sentence-analysis 

The Syntax Tree 

Selections for Sentence-analysis 



XLII 

XLITI 

XLVII 

XLIX 

L 

LII 

LIII 

LX 



PART FOURTH.— SCANNING OR PROSODY. 



First Division. 

Quantity and Accent , 
Poetry 



Prosody 

Emphasis 
Accent, feet . 



Second Division. 

Rhythm 

Kinds of Feet... 
Kinds of Metre 
The Iambus. 

Monometer. 

Dimeter 



231 

231 
232 
234 



241 

250 
251 
253 
254 
256 
257 
258 
260 
261 
267 
271 
274 
275 
277 



291 
301 
304 
304 
305 
307 
324 
337 



I 


1 


341 


I 


8 


341 


I 


9 


342 


I 


14 


342 


II 


16 


343 


III 


1 


343 


IV 


1 


345 


IV 


15 


346 


IV 


17 


346 


V 


1 


347 


V 


10 


349 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 



Lesson. 

Trimeter V 

Tetrameter V 

Pentameter . . V 

Hexameter V 

Heptameter V 

Octameter V 

Heroic Verse V 

TheTrochee VI 

The Dactyl VI 

The Anapest VII 

The Amphibrach IX 

Iambic and Trochaic Poems X 

Catalectic Verse X 

H y permeter or Hyper catalectic Verse X 

Anapestic Poems XI 

Amphibrach Poems XI 

Dactylic Poems XI 

Epic Poems XI 

Dramatic Poems XI 

Tragedy XI 

Comedy ;... XI 

Satire XI 

Opera XI 

Elegy XI 

Third Division. 

Rhyme XII 

Perfect Ehyme XII 

Imperfect Rhyme XIII 

Single Rhyme XIII 

DoubleRhyme XIII 

Triple Rhyme XIII 

Pauses XIV 

Pinal Pause . . . XIV 

Caesural Pause XIV 

Couplet XIV 

Triplet... XIV 

Selection of Words XIV 

Inspiration XIV 

Pourth Division. 

Transposition of Prose XV 

Prose XV 

Poetry.. XV 

Rhyme XV 

BlankVerse XV 

The Mind, Transposition XVI 

Prose Transposed XVI 

Transposition of Poetry XVIII 

Poetry Transposed XVIII 

Scanning XVIII 

Scheme for Scanning XVIII 

Specimens of Scanning XIX 

Selections for Scanning. 

Conclusion 

Index 



Question. 


Page. 


12 


349 


14 


349 


16 


349 


18 


350 


20 


350 


22 


350 


27 


350 


1 


350 


1 


352 


1 


355 


1 


358 




360 


14 


361 


21 


362 


1 


363 


6 


363 


11 


364 


14 


364 


14 


364 


20 


364 


22 


364 


24 


364 



27 



365 



1 


367 


10 


367 


13 


368 


16 


368 


2 


369 


3 


369 


5 


370 


12 


370 


15 


370 


33 


372 


34 


372 


1 


372 


2 


372 


5 


373 


9 


373 


12 


373 


1 


374 


20 


376 


1 


378 


10 


378 


1 


380 



387 






ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



GENERAL OB OUTLINE LESSON. 

1. What is Grammar? Grammar is a beautiful Science 
which treats of the facts, principles and usages of language. 

2. How many parts has Grammar ? Grammar has four 
parts : Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. 

3. What is Orthography? Orthography is that part of 
Grammar which treats of five things: First, of the organs 
of sound and speech; Second, of the elementary sounds 
made by them; Third, of letters used to represent the 
elementary sounds; Fourth, of syllables made of letters; 
Fifth, of spelling or of words made of syllables. 

4. What is Etymology ? Etymology is that part of Gram- 
mar which treats of four things : First, of the classification 
of words into parts of speech ; Second, of the properties of 
words; Third, of the derivation of words from other words 
in our own language by prefixes and suffixes; Fourth, of 
the derivation of words from other words in foreign languages. 

5. What is Syntax? Syntax is that part of Grammar 
which treats of the construction of sentences by teaching 
the relations which exist among their elements. 

6. What is Prosody? Prosody is that part of Grammar 
which treats of four things : First, of Accent and Quantity ; 
Second, of Rhythm; Third, of Rhyme; Fourth, of Trans- 
position. 

7. What are these definitions ? These definitions are exact 
outlines of the four following treatises and as such must be 
memorized word for word and often reviewed. 



PAET FIEST. 

WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY, 



FIEST DIVISION. 
LESSON I. 

Okgasts of Sound. 

1. What is Orthography ? Orthography is that part of 
G-rammar which treats of five things : First, of the organs 
of sound and speech) Second, of the elementary sounds made 
by them ; Third, of letters used to represent the elementary 
sounds ; Fourth, of syllables made of letters ; Fifth, of spell- 
ing or of words made of syllables. 

2. What is an inarticulate sound ? An inarticulate sound 
is one produced by the lungs and vocal cords but not broken 
by the organs of speech. 

3. Illustrate, The human voice in singing, the lowing of 
cattle and the bleating of sheep are examples. 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. What is an articulate sound? An articulate sound 
is one made significant by being broken into syllables and 
elementary sounds by the organs of speech. 

6. Illustrate. Any sentence or word we speak will serve 
as an illustration — as dog, cat, rat, house, mouse, combusti- 
bility. 

7. What are the organs of sound ? The organs of sound 
are the lungs and vocal cords. 

8. What are the lungs ? The lungs are a kind of belloivs 
in the breast by which we breathe and force out air. 

9. What are the vocal cords ? These are cords stretched 
in the throat by which we make sound by forcing air upon 
them from the lungs. 

10. How do these cords make sound ? The vocal cords 
make sound by vibrating and causing the outer air to vibrate 
just like the strings of a violin. 



WORD- ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

11. How can these cords change or pitch the sounds which 
they make ? We raise or lower our voices by tightening or 
slackening these cords just like a violin string. 

12. How do we make our sounds louder or softer? We 
make our vocal sounds louder or softer by a more or less 
forcible emission of air from the lungs. 

LESSON II. 

Organs of Speech. 

1. How can we further modify our sounds ? We can 
farther change our sounds and make them articulate by the 
organs of speech. 

2. What are the organs of speech ? The organs of speech 
are those parts of the body by which sounds of the human 
voice are obstructed, changed and made articulate. 

3. How many organs of speech have we ? We have five 
organs of speech ; the tongue, the teeth, the lips, the palate 
and the nose. 

4. Why is the nose called an auxiliary organ of speech ? 
The nose is so called; because, like the cipher in mathematics, 
it is not an efficient but only a helping organ. 

5. What does lingual mean ? Lingua], from the Latin 
word lingua, means pertaining to the tongue. 

6. What does dental mean ? Dental, from the Latin word 
dens, means 2Jertaining to the teeth. 

7. What does linguo-dental mean? Linguo-dental is a 
compound word made up of lingual and dental joined by the 
hyphen and hence means pertaining to the tongue and teeth. 

8. What does labial mean ? Labial, from the Latin word 
labia, means pertaining to the lips. 

9. What does palatal mean ? Palatal, from the Latin 
word palatum, means pertaining to the palate. 

10. What does the word nasal mean ? Nasal, from the 
Latin word nasus, means pertaining to the nose. 

11. What does palato-nasal mean? Palato-nasal is a 
compound word and means pertaining to the palate and nose. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

12. What does linguo-nasal mean ? Linguo-nasal means 
pertaining to the tongue and nose. 

13. How should the subjects of Elementary Sounds and 
Letters be treated ? Since the Elementary Sounds and the 
Letters, which represent them, have such close relations ; 
they should be treated together. 

14. What is a Diagram? A Diagram is a drawing to 
illustrate a group of facts and principles. 

15. What is the Diagram of Orthography ? The Diagram 
of Orthography is a graphic view of all the characters or 
letters and groups of letters which in English represent 
Elementary Sounds. 

16. What is an Elementary Sound ? An Elementary 
Sound is one that cannot be separated into simpler elements 
or sounds. 

17. Illustrate. The sound of the letter a is an Elementary 
Sound, because it cannot be separated into simpler sounds. 
The sounds of k, I, m, th, ch, y, z, are elementary, because 
they cannot be separated into simpler elements. 

18. Give other examples. 

19. What is a Compound Sound ? A Compound Sound 
is one that can be separated into simpler sounds or elements. 

20. Illustrate. The sound of the word dip is compound, 
because it may be separated into the sounds of d, i and p. 
The words pop and chop are compound sounds, because they 
can be separated into simpler sounds. 

21. Give other examples and explain them. 

22. What is a Letter ? A Letter is a character, figure or 
form used to represent an Elementary Sound. 

23. Illustrate. D, i and p are three characters used to 
represent the three sounds of the word dip. M, a and p are 
three characters or forms used to represent the sound of the 
word map. 

24. Give and explain other examples. 

25. How many incidents belong to letters ? Letters have 
four incidents. 



WORD- ANALYSIS OK ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 



SECOND AND THIRD DIVISIONS. 

LESSON III. 

Elementary Sounds and Letters. 

1. What is the first incident of a letter ? One of the 
incidents of a letter is its form, without which one could not 
be distinguished from another by sight. 

2. Illustrate, p and q also b and d are much alike but 
there is a sufficient difference in form. Also g and y are 
somewhat alike in form but they can be easily distinguished 
by sight. 

3. What is another incident ? Another incident of a 
letter is its name, without which we could not speak of it; as 
aitch, lee, kay, &c. 

4. What is the third incident ? A third incident is the 
sound which a letter has or represents ; as the sounds of d, i 
and p in dip. 

5. What is a fourth incident ? A fourth incident is class. 

6. What is meant by class ? By class is meant the divi- 
sion of letters into vowels and consonants; subvocals and 
aspirates ; labials, palatals, Unguals, etc. 

7. Which is the most important of the four incidents of 
letters ? The names and forms of letters differ widely in 
different languages and in cipher -alphabets but their sounds 
remain the same. Hence sound and class are the most 
important. 

8. Illustrate. Greek, English and German letters have 
different forms and names but their sounds are the same. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. Illustrate by the cipher -alphabets. If a (+) was . 
equal to c hard, a vertical line ( | ) equal to a short and a 
horizontal line ( — ) equal to t; then -\- | —would spell cat 
and so for the whole alphabet, 

11. Give and explain other examples. 

12. Why do Elementary Sounds not vary ? Elementary 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Sounds do not vary ; because the organs of our bodies, with 
which they are made, are uniform, 

13. How many Elementary Sounds are there ? There are 
in English thirty-nine Elementary Sounds represented by 
twenty-six letters. 

14. How can twenty-six letters represent thirty-nine Ele- 
mentary Sounds ? Some letters have more than one sound 
and some represent new sounds by being marked or com- 
bined with others. 

15. Illustrate. The letter (o) has six sounds, and th and 
ch represent sounds different from those of the letters of 
which they are composed. Also s, p and n so marked repre- 
sent elementary sounds different from those which they 
represent without any marks. 

16. Give other illustrations. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OK ORTHOGRAPHY. 



19 







LESSON IV. 


TABLE OF LETTERS, LETTER GROUPS AND MARKS. 


Letters. 


Double 


Digraphs. 


Triphthongs. 


a 


Consonants. 


aa 


uoy (in buoy) 


b 


th 


ae 


iew (in vieiu) 


c 


ph 


ai 


eau (in beau) 


* d 


ch 


ao 


ieu (in lieu) 


e 


wh 


au 


&c. 


f 


gh 


ay 




g 


ng 


aw 


Trigraphs. 


h 


sh 


ea 


aye 


i 


&c. 


ee 


awe 


i 




ei 


eau (in beautiful) 


k 


Diphthongs. 


eo 


eon (in gorgeous) 


1 


ei 


eu 


eye 


m 


ey 


ey 


aou (in caoutchouc) 


n 


e\v 


ew 


owe 





ou 


ie 


&c. 


P 


oy 


oa 




q 


ow 


00 


Diacritical Marks. 


r 


oi 


oe 


Macron (-) as no 


s 


ui 


oi 


Breve ( - ) as not 


t 


ue 


&c. 


Diaeresis (-.) as nor 


u 


&c. 




Circumflex (a) as wolf 


Y 






Tilde ( ~ ) as move 


W 






Dot (•) as gem 


X 






Sub-dot (.) as dove 


y 






Half-cross (t) as s 


z 






Cedilla (.>) as c 
Hyphen (-) as hy-phen 
Accent ( / ) as de-scent 



20 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



LESSON V. 
DIAGRAM OF ORTHOGRAPHY, (Blank.) 



Names. 



Labials. 



Linguals. 



Linguo-dentals. 



Linguo-nasals. 



Palatals. 



Palato-nasals. 



Irregulars. 



Vowels. 



Diphthongs. 



Digraphs. 



Triphthongs. 



Trigraphs. 



Irregulars. 



Subvoeals. Aspirates. 



, 



WORD-ANALYSIS OK ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 

LESSON VI. 

Diagram, Square, Columns. 

I. What is the form of the Diagram of Orthography ? 
This Diagram has the form of a Rectangle. 

2. ' What is a Rectangle ? A Rectangle is a four-sided figure, 
whose angles are all right-angles and whose sides are equal 
and parallel two and two. 

3. Illustrate. A pane of glass, a book-leaf or a slate is 
an example of a rectangle. Also a door or the side of a room 
is a rectangle. 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. What are the dimensions of the Diagram ? The sides 
are to be twice as long as the ends. 

6. How may the Diagram then be divided ? It may be 
divided into two equal squares. 

7. What is a Square ? A square is a rectangle whose sides 
are equal, 

8. Illustrate. A chess-board or the faces of the dice are 
examples of the square. Also a handkerchief is a square. 

9. G-ive other illustrations. 

10. What does the upper square of the Diagram contain ? 
The upper square contains the consonants and their combi- 
nations, 

II. What does the lower square contain? The lower 
square contains the vowels and their combinations. 

12. Why do six vowels require as much space as twenty 
consonants ? The six vowels require as much space as twenty 
consonants, because the vowels represent more sounds and 
are capable of more combinations than the consonants. 

13. What is the Horizon ? The Horizon is the line where 
the earth and shy seem to come together. 

14. What is a horizontal line ? A horizontal line is one 
which is parallel to the plane of the horizon. 

15. Illustrate. When one's arms are extended they show 
a horizontal line. Also the arms of a pair of scales form a 
horizontal line. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

16. What is a horizontal column ? A horizontal column 
is a space bounded by two parallel horizontal lines. 

16. Give examples. The spaces between the ruling of 
writing paper form columns. Also the rulings of ledgers 
and other account-books divide them into columns. 

18. What is a vertical line ? A vertical line is a line per- 
pendicular to a horizontal plane. 

19. Illustrate. The line an apple or acorn takes in falling 
from a tree is an example of a vertical line. Also a tree 
generally grows in a vertical line. 

20. Give other illustrations. 

21. What is a vertical column? A vertical column is a 
space bounded by two parallel, vertical lines. 

22. How many vertical columns does the consonant square 
contain ? The first square contains three vertical columns. 

23. What does the left column contain ? The left column 
contains names of classes. 

24. What does the right column contain? The right 
column contains aspirates. 

25. What does the middle column contain? The middle 
column contains subvocals. 



LESSON VII. 

Columns Continued, Diacritical Marks, Consonants. 

1. How many horizontal columns are there in the first 
square ? There are eight horizontal columns. 

2. What does the upper column contain? The upper 
column contains names of classes. 

3. What do the other seven contain? The other seven 
contain labials, Unguals, linguo-dentals, linguo-nasals, pala- 
tals, palato-nasals, and irregulars. 

4. Why are the contents of these columns given in no 
special order? Because it makes no difference in what order 
they come. 

5. How many vertical columns has the second square ? 






WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 

The vowel square has two vertical columns; the first for the 
names, the second for the letters and groups. 

6. How many horizontal columns has it? It has four 
horizontal columns. 

7. What does the upper column contain ? The upper 
column contains the vowels, with their different sounds 
numbered and marked with diacritical marks. 

8. What are Diacritical Marks ? Diacritical Marks are 
marks attached to the same letters to distinguish their differ- 
ent sounds. 

9. What Diacritical Marks are used to distinguish the six 
sounds of the vowels ? The first sound has the macron (-), 
the second the oreve (^), the third the diaeresis (••)> the 
fourth the circumflex (a), the fifth a tilde ( ~ ) and the 
sixth a single dot ( . ) under the letter. 

1.0. Illustrate with o, a and i. 0, 6, 6, 6, o, o ; a, a, a, a, a ; 
I, i, i', i, &c. Also illustrate with u. u, u, ii, u. 

11. Give other illustrations. 

12. What Diacritical Marks are used on consonants? All 
consonants having two sounds are not marked alike. The 
plan of marking will be explained with the consonants. 

13. Are the same marks used in all Grammars and Diction- 
aries ? They are not but there need be no confusion, for 
each Author explains his own marks in a place called a 
Key to Pronunciation. 

14. Why cannot this book follow the dictionaries of 
Webster, Worcester, etc. ? Because they do not agree with 
each other and because they have no regular system of dia- 
critical marks. They mark the first and second sounds of 
all the vowels alike but all the other sounds of all the vowels 
entirely at random. 

15. Does this Diagram or table exhaust all that can be said 
about the vowel sounds ? It does not. For information as 
to the obscure sounds of the vowels A and and the sound 
of A intermediate between A and A, etc., let pupils and 
teachers refer to Worcester's and Webster's Dictionaries. 

16. What does the second column contain ? The second 
column contains the Diphthongs. 



24 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

17. What does the third column contain? The third 
column contains the Digraphs. 

18. What does the fourth column contain? The fourth 
column contains the Triphthongs. 

19. What does the fifth column contain ? The fifth column 
contains the Trigraphs. 

20. Into what two classes is the alphabet divided ? The 
Alphabet is divided into vowels and consonants, 

21. What is a Vowel ? A Vowel is a letter, whose sounds 
are all full clear tones made with all the organs of speech 
open. 

22. Illustrate. The sounds of a, e and o are full clear 
tones, not cut off nor obstructed by any organs of speech. 

23. Give other illustrations. 

24. What does the word consonant mean ? This word 
comes from con or cum meaning with or together with and 
sono meaning / sound and hence means sounding together 
with. 

25. What is a Consonant ? A Consonant is a letter which 
never forms a syllable without a vowel. 

26. What is a Double Consonant ? A Double Consonant is 
two consonants written together, having a different sound 
from that which either of them separately will express. 

27. Have consonants and double consonants sounds ? All 
consonants and double consonants have sounds ; for, if they 
had not, they might as well be left out of the words. 

28. Does the word consonant mean that the letters so 
called cannot be sounded alone ? It does not, for they can 
be sounded alone. It means that they are never used in 
forming a syllable without a vowel. 

29. Illustrate. In the word bad, the consonants b and d 
cannot be sounded without the vowel a. Also in the word 
not, n and t cannot form a syllable without the vowel o. 

30. Give other illustrations. 

31. How is the sound of a consonant made ? To make a 
consonant sound, the tone or tone-breath is cut off or 
obstructed by one or more of the organs of speech. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 25 

32. Illustrate. The sound of d is made by cutting off or 
obstructing the tone by the tongue and teeth. The sound of 
m is made by cutting off or obstructing the tone-breath by 
the lips. 

33. Give other illustrations. 

34. Into what two classes are consonants divided ? Conso- 
nants are divided into two classes subvocals and aspirates. 

35. What is a Subvocal ? A Subvocal is a consonant, whose 
sound is an undertone. 

36. Illustrate. The sounds of I and m are not clear tones 
nor mere breathings but under- or sub-tones. The sounds 
of r and d are subtones or undertones. 

37. Give other illustrations. 

38. What is an Aspirate ? An Aspirate is a consonant 
whose sound is a mere breathing or a whispering. 

39. Illustrate. The sounds of k and t are merely to be 
whispered or breathed. Also the sounds of s and t are mere 
breathings. 

40. Give other illustrations. 



LESSON VIII. 

Classes of Consonants, Diphthongs. 

1. How are the Consonants further divided ? Consonants 
are further classified according to the organs of speech by 
which their sounds are made. 

2. Into how many classes are they divided ? They are 
divided into six classes. 

3. What are they? Labials, Unguals, linguo-nasals, 
linguo -dentals, palatals and palato-nasals. 

4. How are the different classes named ? Consonants are 
not named from the organs of speech by which they are 
made so much as from those without which they cannot be 
made. 

5. Illustrate. The letter m is made by the lips and nose 
but it is called a labial, because it could not be made without 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the lips. Also r is made by the tongue and teeth but called 
a Ungual, because it cannot be made without the tongue. 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. What are Labials? Labials are consonants, whose 
sounds cannot be made without the lips. 

8. Illustrate. The letters b and w are labials, because 
their sounds cannot be made without the lips. Also v and / 
are labials for the same reason. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. What are Linguals ? Linguals are consonants, whose 
sounds cannot be made without the tongue. 

11. Illustrate. The letters I and r are linguals, because 
their sounds cannot be made without the tongue. 

12. Give other illustrations, if there are any. 

13. What is a Linguo-dental ? A Linguo-dental is a 
consonant, whose sound cannot be made without the tongue 
and teeth. 

14. Illustrate. The letters t and d are Linguo-dentals. 
Also s and sh, because they cannot be made without the 
tongue and teeth. 

15. Give and explain other examples. 

16. What are Linguo-nasals ? Linguo-nasals are conso- 
nants, whose sounds cannot be made without the tongue and 
nose. 

17. Illustrate. The letter n is a Linguo-nasal, because its 
sound cannot be made without the tongue and nose. 

18. Give other examples. 

19. What is a Palatal ? A Palatal is a consonant, whose 
sound cannot be made without the palate. 

20. Illustrate. The letter Ms a Palatal, because its 
sound cannot be made without the palate. Also c and hard g 
are palatals. 

21. Give other illustrations. 

22. What is a Palato-nasal ? A Palato-nasal is a conso- 
nant, whose sound cannot be made without the palate and 
nose. 

23. Illustrate. The double consonant ng in the word song 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

is a Palato-nasal, because its sound cannot be made without 
the palate and nose. 

24. Give other illustrations. 

25. What is a Diphthong ? A Diphthong is two vowels 
written together, having a sound different from that of 
either of them. 

26. Illustrate. Oi as in toil and ou as in found are 
diphthongs, because they each have a sound different from 
that of either of the single vowels. Also oy in joy and ey in 
they are Diphthongs. 

27. Give other illustrations. 

28. When are two vowels written together not a Diph- 
thong ? When two vowels written together have the same 
sound as one of them, they do not form a Diphthong but a 
Digraph. 

LESSON IX. 

Digraphs, Triphthongs and Trigraphs. 

1. What is a Digraph? A Digraph is two vowels written 
together, having the same sound as one of them. 

2. Illustrate. In the words beat and break, ea is a Digraph, 
having the first sound of e in one and the first sound of a in 
the other. Also in the words boat and coat, oa is a digraph ; 
because it is two vowels written together, having the same 
sound as one of them. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. When is the same combination a Diphthong and when 
a Digraph ? The same combination is a Diphthong, when 
both the vowels unite in forming the sound, and a Digraph, 
when only one of them expresses the sound. 

5. Illustrate. In the word mound, ou is a Diphthong but, 
in the words mould and would, it is a Digraph ; because, in 
the first, ou has the sound of b and, in the second, it has the 
sound of u. 

6. G-ive other illustrations. 

7. What is a Triphthong ? A Triphthong is three vowels 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

written together, having a sound different from that of any 
single one of them. 

8. Illustrate. In the word view, iew is a Triphthong; 
because it is three vowels written together, having a sound 
different from any one of them. Also uoy is a triphthong 
for the same reason. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. What is a Trigraph ? A Trigraph is three vowels 
written together, having the same sound as one of them. 

11. Illustrate. In the word gorgeous, eou is a Trigraph 
and its sound is the same as the third sound of u, one of its 
letters. Also in the word beautiful, eau is a trigraph; 
because it is three vowels written together, having the same 
sound as the first sound of u. 

VZ, Give other illustrations. 

13. May the same combination be both a Triphthong 
and a Trigraph ? The same group is a Triphthong, when 
its sound differs from that of any of its letters, and a Tri- 
graph, when its sound is the same as one-oi them. 

14. Illustrate. Eau is a Triphthong in beau and a Tri- 
graph in beautiful. 

15. Give other illustrations. 

16. Why is a list of letters with their combinations given 
on the page before the Diagram ? The alphabet, the double 
consonants, the diphthongs and digraphs, triphthongs and 
trigraphs are to be put down and then the diagram filled 
from this list. 

17. How can the Diagram be best learned ? The Diagram 
can be best learned by frequently drawing it and filling it up 
from the list of letters. 

18. Why is the etc. placed after the lists of Diphthongs 
and Digraphs, Triphthongs and Trigraphs ? This is to show 
that these lists are not considered to be exhaustive. 

19. How can a full list of these be made ? A full list of 
these combinations of vowels may be made by permuting the 
six vowels in groups of two each and three each and then 
rejecting such as are not used. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 29 

LESSON X. 

Permutations, Classes and Sounds of Letters. 

1. How are permutations of letters and objects made ? 
Permutations are made by rules given in the Arithmetics 
and Algebras. 

2. How can these classes or combinations of letters be 
distinguished after they are formed ? We can tell to which 
class the combinations belong by making their sounds and 
applying to them the definitions already given. 

3. What is a ? A is a vowel; because all of its sounds are 
full, clear tones unobstructed and unbroken by any of the 
organs of speech. 

4. How many Elementary Sounds does a represent ? A 
represents five Elementary Sounds. 

1 2 

5. Give words in which these sounds are found. Fate, fat, 

3 4 5 

far, fall, dare, 

6. What is the first sound of a ? The first sound of a is 
— (here always make the sound') as in fate. 

7. Give four other words containing this sound. 

8. What is the second sound of a? The second sound of 
a is -^_ as in fat. 

9. Give four other words containing this sound. 

10. What is the third sound of a ? The third sound of a 
is ~ as in far. 

11. Give four other examples. 

12. What is the fourth sound of a ? The fourth sound of 
a is ~i. as in fall. 

13. Give four other examples. 

14. What is the fifth sound of a ? The fifth sound of a is 
.^l. as in dare. 

15. Give other examples of this. 

16. Give or utter or explode all the sounds of a. First -=. 
as in fate, second — as in fat, third jll as in far, fourth 
-£_ as in fall and fifth -z. as in dare. 

17. Eepeat these till mastered. 

18. What is b ? B is a consonant. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

19. Why is b a consonant ? B is a consonant, because it 
never forms a syllable without a vowel. 

20. How is the sound of b made ? The sound of b is made 
by closing the lips and then forcing them apart with the tone- 
breath. 

21. Make or utter the sound of b four times. 

(here explode the sound as many times as there are marks') 
as in bib. 

22. Illustrate this sound by words in which it occurs. 
Bat, but, bought, imbibe, etc. 

23. Give other words and explode the sound. 

24. How can the class to which a letter belongs be deter- 
mined ? The class to which a letter belongs may be deter- 
mined by making or uttering its sound or sounds and 
observing with what organs of speech it is struck. 

25. What kind of a consonant then is b ? B is a labial 
subvocal. 

26. Why is b a labial ? B is a labial, because its sound is 
made by obstructing or cutting off the tone with the lips. 

27. Why is b a subvocal ? B is a subvocal, because its 
sound is an undertone half-way between the clear tone of a 
vowel and the breathing of an aspirate. 

28. What kind of a letter is c ? C is a consonant. 

LESSON XI. 

Classes and Sounds of Letters Continued. — and D. 

1. Why is c a consonant? C is a consonant, because it is 
always used in connection with a vowel and never forms a 
syllable without a vowel. 

2. How many sounds has c ? G has two sounds the hard 
and the soft. 

3. How is the hard sound of c made ? The hard sound of 
c is made by placing the tongue against the palate and then 
forcing it away with the breath. 

4. Make or utter the hard sound of c. as 

in cut. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 31 

5. Illustrate the hard sound of c by examples. Out, cat, 
cactus, corn, cattle, curl, case. 

6. Give other examples. 

7. What kind of a letter then is hard c ? Hard c is a 
palatal aspirate. 

8. Why is hard c a palatal ? Hard c is a palatal, because 
its sound is made by obstructing or cutting off the breath in 
the palate or rather because its sound cannot be made with- 
out the palate. 

9. How is soft c made ? Soft c is made by placing the 
tongue against the teeth and then forcing the breath between 
them. 

10. Make or explode the soft sound of c. as 

in cell, rice, etc. 

11. Illustrate this sound by examples, Qel\, receive, Qede, 
recede. 

12. Give three other examples. 

13. What kind of a letter then is soft c ? Soft c is a linguo- 
dental aspirate. 

14. Why is soft e a linguo-dental? Soft c is a linguo-dental, 
because it has a tongue-teeth sound and its sound cannot be 
made without the tongue and teeth. 

15. Why are both hard c and soft c aspirates ? Hard c and 
soft c are aspirates, because their sounds are mere breathings. 

16. How are the sounds of c marked ? The soft sound of 
c is marked with the cedilla as in French but hard c is dis- 
tinguished by having no mark. 

17. What is d ? D is a consonant, because it never forms 
a syllable without a vowel. 

18. How is the sound of d made ? The sound of d is made 
t by placing the tongue against the teeth and then forcing it 

away with the tone-breath. 

19. Make or explode the sound of d. as in 

did, divide, etc. 

20. Illustrate this sound. Dead, did, done, due, die, etc. 

21. Give other examples. 

22. What kind of a consonant is d ? D is a linguo-dental 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

23. Why a linguo-dental ? D is a linguo-dental, because 
it is a tongue-teeth sound and cannot be made without the 
tongue and teeth. 

24. Why a subvocal ? D is a subvocal, because its sound 
is an undertone. 

LESSON XII. 

Classes and Sounds of Letters Continued. — E, F 
and G. 

1. What is e ? E is a voweZ, because all of its sounds are 
full, clear tones, 

2. How many sounds has e? E has three sounds. 

3. How are these sounds made ? These sounds are made 
with all the organs of speech open. 

4. Give words in which they are found. Me, met, her. 

5. What is the first sound of e? The first sound of e is 
jz. as in me. 

6. Give other words containing this sound. 

7. What is the second sound of e? The second sound of 
e is ^l as in met. 

8. Give four other examples of this sound. 

9. What is the third sound of e ? The third sound of e is 
~ as in her. 

10. Give six other words containing this sound. 

11. Make or explode the sounds of e ; first, as — in me, 
second ±l as in met, third — as in her. 

12. Kepeat them five times. 

13. What kind of a letter is /? F is a consonant, because 
it is always used or sounded in connection with a vowel and 
cannot form a syllable without one. 

14. How is the sound of/ made? The sound of/ is made 
by placing the under Up against the teeth and then forcing 
the breath between them. 

15. Explode the sound of / four times. as 

in fife, fun, etc. 

16. Give words in which this sound occurs. Life, fifty, 
fun, fuss, fur, etc. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OK ORTHOGRAPHY. 33 

17. Give other illustrations. 

18. What kind of a consonant is/? i^is a labial aspirate, 

19. Why is it a labial? F is called a labial, because it 
cannot be made without the lips. 

20. Why is it an aspirate ? F is an aspirate, because its 
sound is a mere breathing. 

21. What kind of a letter is g ? G is a consonant, because 
it is always used in connection with a vowel and cannot form 
a syllable without a vowel. 

22. How many sounds has g ? 6r has two sounds the hard 
and the soft. 

23. How is the hard sound of g made ? The hard sound 
of g is made by placing the tongue against the palate and 
forcing it away with the tone-breath. 

24. G-ive words containing this sound. Goat, jug, gargle, 
gudgeon, etc. 

25. Give other illustrations. 

26. Make or explode the hard sound of g four times. 
as in gag, gun, etc. 

27. What kind of a consonant is hard g ? Hard g is a 
palatal subvocal. 

28. Why is it a palatal ? G hard is a palatal, because the 
tone is obstructed in the palate and the sound cannot be made 
without the palate. 

29. Why is it a subvocal ? G hard is a subvocal, because 
its sound is an undertone. 



LESSON XIII. 

Classes and Sounds of Letters Continued.— G, H 
and I. 

1. How is soft g made ? Soft g is made by placing the 
tongue against the teeth and forcing it away with the tone- 
breath. 

2. Make the sound of soft g three times. as in 

gin, cage, etc. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Give words containing soft g. George, germ, gin, 
ginger, etc. 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. What kind of a letter then is soft g ? Soft g is a linguo- 
dental subvocal. 

6. Why is it a linguo-dental ? Soft g is a linguo-dental, 
because it cannot be made without the tongue and teeth. 

7. Why are both hard and soft g subvocals ? G hard and 
g soft are subvocals, because their sounds are undertones. 

8. How are the sounds of g marked ? The soft sound is 
marked with a dot over it (</) and the hard sound is dis- 
tinguished by having no mark. 

9. What kind of a letter is h ? H is a consonant, because 
it is always used in connection with a vowel and cannot form 
a syllable without a vowel. 

10. How is the sound of h made ? The sound of h is made 
by placing the tongue almost against the palate and forcing 
the breath between. 

11. Make the sound of h three times. as in hind, 

his, etc. 

12. Give words containing h. Horse, house, hire, his, hit, 
has. 

13. Give other illustrations. 

14. What kind of consonant then is h ? H is a palatal 
aspirate. 

15. Why is it a palatal ? iiTis a palatal, because its sound 
cannot be made without the palate. 

16. Why is it an aspirate? His an aspirate, because its 
sound is a mere breathing. 

17. What kind of a letter is i? I is a vowel, because all 
of its sounds are full, clear tones. 

18. How many sounds has i ? / has four sounds. 

19. How are these sounds made ? These sounds are made 
with all the organs of speech open. 

20. Give words in which they are found. Pine, pin, sir, 

4 

machine. 

21. What is the first sound of i? The first sound of i is 
-=. as in pine. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OK ORTHOGRAPHY. 35 

22. Give three other words containing this sound. 

23. What is the second sound of i ? The second sound of 
i is -^ as in pin. 

24. Give three examples of this sound. 

25. What is the third sound of i ? The third sound of i 
is — as in sir. 

26. Give three other examples of this sound. 

27. What is the fourth sound of i ? This sound of i is — 
as in machine. 

28. Give three other examples of this sound. 

29. Make or explode the four sounds of i, giving the 
words in which they are found. First, — as in pine, second 
-±l as in pin, third — as in sir, fourth — as in machine. 

30. Eepeat them until they are mastered. 

LESSON XIV. 

Classes and Sounds of Letters Continued. — J, K 

AND L. 

1. What kind of a letter isj ? J" is a consonant, because 
it cannot be sounded in a syllable without a vowel 

2. How is the sound ofj made ? The sound of j is made 
by placing the point of the tongue against the fro?it teeth and 
forcing the tone-breath between. 

3. Make or explode the sound of j. as in jig, 

jar, jam, etc. 

4.. Illustrate the sound of/ by several examples. Joke, 
June, July, judge. 

5. Give other examples. 

6. What kind of a consonant is j ? J" is a linguo-dental 
subvocal. 

7. Why a linguo-dental ? J" is a linguo-dental, because it 
is a tongue-teeth sound and cannot be made without the 
tongue and teeth. 

8. Why a subvocal ? J" is a subvocal, because its sound is 
an undertone. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. What kind of letter is k ? iTis a consonant, because it 
cannot be used in a syllable without a vowel. 

10. How is the sound of k made? The sound of k is 
made by placing the tongue against the palate and then 
forcing it away by the breath. 

11. Make or explode the sound of k. as in 

keg, kid, etc. 

12. Illustrate by several examples. Kite, kitten, cake, 
trunk, bank, etc. 

13. Give other illustrations. 

14. What kind of a consonant is k? AT is a palatal 



15. Why is k a palatal ? iTis a palatal, because its sound 
cannot be made without the palate. 

16. Why is it an aspirate ? K is an aspirate, because its 
sound is a mere breathing. 

17. What is I ? L is a consonant, because it cannot be 
sounded without a vowel. 

18. How is the sound of I made ? The sound of I is made 
by placing the point of the tongue against the teeth or 
upper dental arch and forcing the tone-breath around it. 

19. Make the sound of I six times. as 

in lull, lag, etc. 

20. Illustrate this sound by examples. Lull, like, lute, 
lily. 

21. G-ive other illustrations. 

22. What kind of a consonant is I ? L is a lingual subvocal. 

23. Why is I a lingual ? L is a lingual, because its sound 
cannot be made without the tongue. 

24. Why is it a subvocal ? L is a subvocal, because its 
sound is an undertone. 

LESSON XV. 
Classes and Sounds oe Letters Continued.— M, N 

AND 0. 

1. What is m ? if is a consonant, because it cannot form 
a syllable without a vowel. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OK ORTHOGRAPHY. 37 

2. How is the sound of m made ? The sound of m is 
made by closing the lips and then uttering sound through 
the nose. 

3. Make or explode the sound of m six times. 

as in mum, mix, etc. 

4. Illustrate by examples the sound of m. Memory, morn- 
ing, mug, etc. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. What kind of consonant is m ? M is a labial subvocal. 

7. Why isma labial ? if is a labial, because its sound 
cannot be made without the lips. 

8. Why is m a subvocal ? if is a subvocal, because its 
sound is an undertone. 

9. What is n ? JV is a consonant, because it cannot form 
a syllable without a vowel. 

10. How many sounds has n ? iV'has two sounds. 

11. How is the first sound of n made ? The first sound of 
n is made ; by placing the tongue against the roof of the 
mouth, so as to cut off breath, and then forcing or uttering 
sound through the nose. 

12. Give words containing this sound. Nine, none, no, 
not, knight, etc. 

13. Give other illustrations of this sound. 

14. Make or utter the first sound of n four times. 

as in nun, nag, not, etc. 

15. What kind of a consonant is n with this sound ? N 
with this sound is a linguo-nasal subvocal. 

Id. Why is it a linguo-nasal ? The first sound of n is a 
linguo-nasal, because its sound cannot be made without the 
tongue and nose. 

17. Why is it a subvocal ? The first sound of n is a 
subvocal because its sound is an undertone. 

18. How is the second sound of n made ? This sound of 
n is made by closing the palate and uttering tone through 
the nose. 

19. Make or utter this sound of n four times. 

T 

as in ink, sink, English, anger, etc. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

20. Give words in which this sound is found. Ink, 
anger, bank, sunk, bunk, English, sank, etc. 

21. Give other illustrations of this sound. 

22. What kind of a consonant then is second n ? Second 

T 

n is a potato -nasal subvocal. 

23. Why is second n a palato -nasal ? Second n is apalato- 
nasal, because its sound cannot be made without the palate 
and nose. 

24. Why is second n a subvocal ? It is a subvocal, because 
its sound is an undertone. 

25. How are the sounds of n distinguished in writing or 
printing? The sounds are distinguished by a half cross 
under the second. 

26. Illustrate. Ink, sink, bank, sunk, etc. 

T ' - T ' T ' T 7 

27. What kind of letter is o ? is a vowel, because all of 
its sounds are full, clear tones. 

28. How are its sounds made? The sounds of o are made 
with all the organs of speech open. 

29. How many sounds has o? has six sounds called 
the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth sounds. 

12 3 

30. G-ive words in which they are found. No, not, nor, 

4 5 6 

wolf, move, dove. 

31. What is the first sound of o ? The first sound of o is 

— as in no. 

32. Give three other examples of this sound. 

33. What is the second sound of o ? The second sound of 
o is ±l as in not. 

34. Give three other examples of this sound. 

35. What is the third sound of o ? The third sound of o 
is — as in nor. 

36. Give three other examples of this sound of o. 

37. What is the fourth sound of o ? The fourth sound of 
o is — as in wolf. 

38. Give three other examples of this sound. 

39. What is the fifth sound of o ? The fifth sound of o is 

— as in move. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 39 

40. Give three other examples of this sound. 

41. What is the sixth sound of o ? The sixth sound of o 
is — as in dove. 

42. Give three other examples of this sound. 

43. Give all the sounds of o. First j=l as in no, second j=l 
as in not, third — as in nor, fourth — as in w61f, fifth — 
as in move, sixth — as in dove. 

44. Repeat them until mastered. 

45. How are the sounds of vowels marked ? As in 0, vowels 
have the macron (-) over the first sound, the breve (^) 
over the second, the diaeresis ( • • ) over the third, the cir- 
cumflex (a) over the fourth, the tilde ( ~) over the fifth, 
and the sub-dot (.) under the sixth. 

LESSON XVI. 
Classes and Sounds of Letters Continued.— P, Q, R 

AND S. 

1. What kind of a letter is p ? P is a consonant, because 
it cannot be used without a vowel. 

2. How is this sound made ? The sound of p is made by 
closing the lips and then forcing them apart with the breath. 

3. Explode or utter the sound of p six times. — 

as in pip, pipe, etc. 

4. Illustrate this sound by examples. Pipe, pop, paper, 
puppet, etc. 

5. Give three other examples of this sound. 

6. What kind of a consonant then is p ? P is a labial 
aspirate. 

7. Why is^> a labial ? It is a labial, because its sound can- 
not be made without the lips. 

8. Why is p an aspirate ? P is an aspirate, because its 
sound is a mere breathing. 

9. What is q ? Q is a consonant, because it cannot form a 
syllable tvithout a voivel. 

10. What sound has q ? Q has no sound of its own but 
qu is equal to Jew. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

11. What is r? R is a consonant, because it cannot form 
a syllable without a vowel. 

12. How is the sound of r made? The sound of r is 
made by placing the sides of the tongue against the teeth and 
forcing the tone-breath over the point of it. 

13. Make the sound of r six times. as 

in roar, soar, etc. 

14. Illustrate by giving words. Rural, rum, roar, roam, 
aurora, etc. 

15. Give four other examples. 

16. What kind of a consonant then is r? R is a lingual 
subvocal. 

17. Why is r a Ungual? R is a lingual, because its sound 
cannot be made without the tongue. 

18. Why is r a subvocal ? R is a subvocal, because its 
sound is an undertone. 

19. What is s ? 8 is a consonant, because it cannot be 
used without a vowel. 

20. How many sounds has s? S has two sounds a sharp 
and a dull sound. 

21. How is the sharp sound made ? This sound is made 
by placing the tongue against the teeth and then forcing the 
breath between them. 

22. How is the dull sound made ? The dull sound of s is 
made by placing the tongue against the teeth and then 
forcing the tone-breath between them. 

23. Make the sound of sharp s six times. — 

as in sin, sassafras, etc. 

24. Make the sound of dull s six times. 

as in rise, resume, etc. 

25. Illustrate by examples the sharp sound of s. Side, 
hiss, missive, combustion, fuss, etc. 

26. Give other illustrations. 

27. Illustrate dull s. Rose, repose, arise, desire, resound, 
etc. 

28. Give other illustrations. 

29. What kind of consonant is sharp s ? Sharp s is a 
linguo-dental aspirate. 









WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 41 

30. Why is it a linguo-dental ? Sharp s is a linguo-dental, 
because its sound cannot be made without the tongue and 
teeth. 

31. Why is it an aspirate ? Sharp s is an aspirate, because 
its sound is a mere breathing. 

32. What kind of a consonant is dull s? Dull s is a 
linguo-dental subvocal. 

33. Why is it a linguo-dental ? Dull s is a linguo-dental, 
because its sound cannot be made without the tongue and 

teeth. 

34. Why is dull s a subvocal? Dull s is a subvocal, 

because its sound is an undertone. 

35. How are the sounds of s marked ? The dull sound is 
marked by the half cross placed under it (s) and the sharp 
sound is distinguished by not being marked. 



LESSON XVII. 

Classes and Sounds of Letters Continued. — T and U. 

1. What is t? Tis a consonant, because it cannot form a 
syllable without a vowel. 

2. How is the sound of t made ? The sound of t is made 
by placing the tongue against the teeth and forcing it away 
with the breath. 

3. Make the sound of I six times and until mastered. 

as in tight, tan, etc. 

4. Illustrate by examples. Total, tape, top, tub, title, 
totter, etc. 

5. Give four other examples. 

6. What kind of consonant is t ? T is a linguo-dental 
aspirate. 

7. Why is it a linguo-dental ? T is a linguo-dental, because 
its sound is made by obstructing the breath with the tongue 
and teeth and cannot be made without the tongue and teeth. 

8. Why is it an aspirate ? I 7 is an aspirate, because its 
sound is a mere breathing. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. What is u? £7 is a vowel, because its sounds are all 
full, clear tones. 

10. How are the sounds of u made ? These sounds are 
made with all the organs of speech open. 

11. How many sounds has u ? U has four sounds called 
the first, the second, the third and the fourth. 

1 2 3 

12. Give words in which they are found. Tube, tiib, fiir, 

full. 

13. What is the first sound of u ? The first sound of u is 
-=- as in tube. 

14. Give three other examples of this sound. 

15. What is the second sound of u ? The second sound 
of u is — as in tiib. 

16. Give three other examples of this sound. 

17. What is the third sound of u? This sound is — as 
in fiir. 

18. Give three other words containing this sound and 
explain them. 

19. What is the fourth sound of u? This sound is — as 
in full. 

20. Give three other examples containing this sound. 

21. Give all the sounds of u. First -=. as in tube, second 
j*l as in tiib, third — as in fiir, fourth — as in full. 

22. Eepeat these till mastered. 

23. How are the sounds of u marked ? The sounds of u 
are marked the same as the first, second, third and fourth 
sounds. of other vowels. 

LESSON XVIII. 

Classes and Sounds of Letters Continued.— V, W, X 

and Y. 

1. What kind of a letter is v ? V is a consonant, because 
it cannot form a syllable without a vowel. 

2. How is the sound of v made ? This sound is made by 
obstructing the tone-breath by the under lip. 

3. Make or explode the sound six times and until mastered. 
as in vine, revive, etc. 



WORD- ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 43 

4. Illustrate this sound by examples. Vase, visor, vote, 
vivacious. 

5. Give three other examples. 

6. What kind of a consonant is v ? Via a labial subvocal. 

7. "Why is v-& labial ? V is a labial, because its sound 
cannot be made without the lips. 

8. Why is it a subvocal ? V is a subvocal, because its 
sound is an undertone. 

9. What kind of a letter is w ? Wia a consonant, because 
it cannot form a syllable without the aid of a vowe/. 

10. How is the sound of w made ? This sound is made 
by passing the tone-breath through a small, round opening 
between the lips. 

11. Make the sound of w six times and until mastered. 
as in wolf, wine, etc. 

12. Give examples of this sound ? Work, wear, wring, 
swing, workman, etc. 

13. Give other examples of this sound. 

14. What kind of consonant is w ? W is a labial subvocal. 

15. Why is it a labial ? W is a labial, because its sound 
cannot be made without the lips. 

16. Why is it a subvocal? IT is a subvocal, because its 
sound is an undertone. 

17. What is a? Xhas no sound of its own but is equal 
to ks. 

18. What kind of letter is y ? I^is a vowel, because its 
sounds are full, clear tones. 

19. How many sounds has y? J^has three sounds. 

20. How are these sounds made? These sounds are made 
with all the organs of speech open. 

21. Give words in which these sounds are found. Type, 

2 3 

hymn, myrrh. 

22. What is the first sound of y ? The first sound of y is 
-=. as in type. 

23. Give three other words containing this sound. 

24. What is the second sound of y ? This sound of y is 
±i. as in hvmn. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

25. Give three other words in which this sound is found. 

26. What is the third sound of y? This sound is — as 
in myrrh. 

27. Give three other words in which this sound is found. 

28. Make the three sounds of y giving the words in which 
they are found. First -n as in type, second ^- as in hymn, 
third — as in myrrh. 

29. Repeat these until they are mastered. 

LESSON XIX. 

Classes and Sounds of Letters Continued. — Double 
Consonants — Z and Th. 

1. What kind of letter is z ? Z is a consonant, because 
it cannot form a syllable without a vowel. 

2. How many sounds has z? Z has but one sound. 

3. How is the sound of z made? The sound of z is made 
by placing the point of the tongue against the front teeth and. 
then forcing the tone-breath between them. 

4. Make or explode the sound of z four times. 

as in zone, size, etc. 

5. Illustrate the sound of z. Zigzag, frozen, dizzy, doze, 
freeze, fuzz, etc. 

6. Give other examples containing this sound. 

7. What kind of a consonant then is z ? Z is a linguo- 
dental subvocal. 

8. Why is z a linguo-dental ? Z is a linguo-dental, because 
its sound cannot be made without the tongue and teeth. 

9. Why is z a subvocal ? Zh a subvocal ; because its sound 
is an undertone, half-way between the full, clear sound of a 
vowel and the breathing of an aspirate. 

10. What is th? Th is a double consonant, because it 
consists of two consonants written together having a different 
sound from that which either of them expresses. 

11. Why is th a consonant ? Th is a consonant, because 
it cannot be sounded without a vowel. 



WORD-ANALYSTS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 45 

12. How many sounds has th ? Th has two sounds, the 
sharp and the dull. 

13. How is the sharp sound of th made ? The sharp sound 
of th is made by placing the tongue against the front teeth 
and forcing through the breath. 

14. Give examples of this sound. Thin, throw, thought, 
think, thatch, etc. 

15. Give other examples. 

16. Make the sharp sound of th five times. 

as thin, etc. 

17. What kind of a letter then is sharp th? Sharp th is 
a linguo-dental aspirate. 

18. Why is it a linguo-dental? Sharp th is a linguo- 
dental, because its sound cannot be made without the tongue 
and teeth. 

19. Why is it an aspirate ? Sharp th is an aspirate, because 
its sound is a mere breathing. 

20. How is dull th made. Dull th is made by placing 
the tongue against the front teeth and forcing through the 
tone-breath. 

21. Give examples containing this sound. This, that, 
these, those, thither, etc. 

22. Make the dull sound of th five times. 

T 

as in this, these, etc. 

23. What kind of a consonant then is dull th? Dull th 
is a linguo-dental subvocal. 

24. Why is it a linguo-dental ? Dull th is a linguo-dental, 
because its sound cannot be made without the tongue and 



25. Why is it a subvocal ? Dull th is a subvocal, because 
its sound is an undertone. 

26. How are the sounds of th marked ? These sounds are 

T 

marked the same as those of s with a half cross underneath 
the dull sound, the sharp sound is distinguished by not 
being marked at all. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XX. 

Classes and Sounds oe Letters Continued. — Double 
Consonants— Ph and Wh. 

1. What is ph ? Ph is a consonant, because it cannot form 
a syllable without a vowel. 

2. How is the sound of ph made ? This sound is made by 
placing the under lip against the upper teeth and then forc- 
ing through the breath. 

3. Give words containing this sound. Philip, philosopher, 
philanthropy, etc. 

4. Give other examples. 

5. Explode the sound of ph six times. 

as in Philip, trophy, etc. 

6. What kind of a consonant then is ph ? Ph is a labial 
aspirate. 

7. Why is ph a labial ? Ph is not a labial, because its sound 
is made by the lips alone but because it cannot be made 
without them. 

8. Why isph an aspirate? Ph is an aspirate, because its 
sound is a mere breathing. 

9. What is ch ? Ch is a double consonant ; because it con- 
sists of two consonants, having a different sound from that 
which either of them expresses and cannot form a syllable 
without a vowel. 

10. How many sounds has ch ? Ch has two sounds the 
hard and the soft. 

11. How is the hard sound made? This sound is made 
by placing the tongue against the teeth and forcing it away 
with the breath. 

12. Give examples of this sound? Chop, chew, chill, 
chide, chum, etc. 

13. Give other examples. 

14. Make or utter this sound six times. 

as in chop, rich, etc. 

15. What kind of consonant then is hard ch ? Hard ch 
is a linguo -dental aspirate. 



WORD- ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 47 

16. Why is it a linguo -dental ? Hard ch is a linguo-dental, 
because its sound cannot be made without the tongue and 
teeth. 

17. Why is it an aspirate ? Hard ch is an aspirate, because 
its sound is a mere breathing. 

18. How is the soft sound of ch made ? This sound, like 
that of th, is made by placing the tongue near the front teeth 
and then forcing the breath between. 

19. Explode the soft sound of ch six times. 

as in chaise. 

T T 

20. Give words in which this sound is found. Chicanery, 
chaise, etc. 

21. Give other examples. 

22. What kind of a consonant then is soft ch ? Soft ch is 
a linguo-dental aspirate. 

23. Why is it a linguo-dental ? Soft ch is a linguo-dental, 
because its sound cannot be made without the tongue and 
teeth. 

24. Why is it an aspirate ? Soft ch is an aspirate, because 
its sound is a mere breathing. 

25. In what column of the table are ch hard and soft found? 
Both sounds are found in the column of linguo-dental 
aspirates. 

26. How are the sounds of ch marked? The sounds of ch 
are marked the same as those of s and th. 

27. What is wh? Wh is a double consonant, because the 
two letters have but one sound and that different from the 
sound of either of them and because it cannot form a syllable 
without a vowel. 

28. How is the sound of wh made ? The sound of wh is 
made by nearly closing the lips and then, as they gradually 
open, forcing the breath between them. 

29. Utter or explode the sound of wh six times. 

as in when, whine, etc. 

30. Give examples containing this sound. White, whistle, 
which, etc. 

31. Give other examples. 



48 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

32. What kind of consonant then is wh ? Wh is a labial 
aspirate. 

33. Why is it a labial ? Wh is a labial, because its sound 
cannot be made without the lips. 

34. Why is wh an aspirate ? Wh is an aspirate, because 
its sound is a mere breathing. 

35. Where is it found in the diagram ? Wh is found in the 
diagram in the column of labial aspirates. 

LESSON XXI. 

Classes and Sounds of Lettees Continued.— Double 

Consonants — Gh, Ng and Sh. 

1. What is gh ? Oh is a double consonant ; because it is two 
consonants written together, having a sound different from 
that of either of them and cannot form a syllable without a 
vowel. 

2. How is this sound made ? The sound of gh, like that 
of/, is made chiefly by the lips. 

3. Explode this sound six times. as in 

rough, tough, etc. 

4. Give examples of this sound. Rough, enough, tough, etc. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. What kind of consonant then is gh? Gh is a labial 
aspirate like / and for the same reasons. 

7. Is gh in ghost a double consonant ? Gh in ghost is not 
a double consonant, because the sound of both is the same 
as that of g hard. G and h are separate, G has the hard 
sound and h is silent. 

8. What is ng ? Ng is a double consonant, because it cannot 
form a syllable without a vowel. 

9. How is the sound of ng made ? The sound of ng is 
made by placing the tongue against the palate and then 
forcing the tone-breath through the nose. 

10. Explode this sound six times. as in 

song, string, etc. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OE ORTHOGRAPHY. 49 

11. Give examples of this sound. Song, long, gong, prong, 
ring, etc. 

12. Give other illustrations of this sound. 

13. What kind of a consonant then is ng ? Ng is apalato- 
nasal subvocal. 

14. Why is it a palalo-nasal ? Ng is a palato-nasal, because 
its sound cannot be made without the palate and nose. 

15. Why is it a subvocal ? Ng is a subvocal, because its 
sound is an undertone. 

16. What is sh? Sh is a cloulle consonant; because it is 
two consonants written together, having a sound different 
from that of either of them and cannot form a syllable with- 
out a vowel. 

17. How is its sound made ? The sound of sh is made by 
placing the point of the tongue near the front teeth and 
forcing through the breath. 

18. Explode the sound six times. as in 

sham, shine, etc. 

19. Illustrate this sound by examples. Ship, shawl, shoe, 
shine, etc. 

20. Give other illustrations. 

21. What kind of consonant then is sh ? Sh is a linguo- 
dental aspirate. 

22. Why is it a Unguo-dentaU Sh is a linguo-dental, 
because its sound cannot be made without the tongue and 
teeth. 

23. Why is it an aspirate ? Sh is an aspirate, because its 
sound ds a mere breathing. 

24. How many sounds have we now found ? We have now 
found fifty -six sounds. 

25. Are these sounds all different ? These sounds are not 
all different, for some are substitutes for others. 

26. Illustrate. iTis a substitute for the hard sound of c 
and s for its soft sound. Also the three sounds of y are substi- 
tutes for the three first sounds of L 

27. Give other examples. 

28. Are there any other elementary sounds ? There are 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

no other elementary sounds. The groups of vowels all have 
either the sound of one of the single vowels or a compound 
sound. 

29. Illustrate this. The sound of ai in fail is the same 
as the first sound of a and hence has no new sound. The 
sound of ou in our is compound and not elementary. 

30. What is a compound sound ? A compound sound is 
one which can be separated into two or more elementary 
sounds. 

31. Illustrate. The sound of the letter h is simple but 
the sound heard in the word tat is compound, because it can 
be separated into three other sounds. 

32. Give other examples. 

LESSON XXII. 

Classes and Sounds of Letters Continued. — Diph- 
thongs and Digraphs. 

1. Give some diphthongs. Ui, ue, oi, ou, ow. 

2. What is ui ? Ui in most situations is a diphthong. 

3. Why is ui a diphthong ? Ui is a diphthong, because it is 
two vowels written together having one sound different from 
that which either of them expresses. 

4. Illustrate. In the words liquidate and iniquity ui has 
a sound different from any sound of either u or i. Also in 
the word quit, quinine and quibble. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. What is ue ? Ue is a diphthong in most situations. 

7. Why is ue a diphthong ? Ue is a diphthong ; because it is 
two voivels written together, having one sound different from 
that which either of them expresses. 

8. Illustrate. Ue in the words liquefy and consequence has 
a sound different from that of either u or e. Also in the 
words queen, query and question. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. What is oi ? Oi is a diphthong, because it is two vowels 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 51 

written together having one sound different from that which 
either of them expresses. 

11. Illustrate. Oi in the words boil, coil, turmoil etc., 
has one sound different from that of either of its vowels. 
Also in the words toil, soil and broil. 

12. Give other illustrations. 

13. What are ou, ow etc. 

14. Give digraphs. Oa, ao, oo, ee, aa, ai, ea etc. 

15. What is oa ? Oa is a digraph or improper diphthong. 

16. Why is oa a digraph? Oa is a digraph, because it is 
two vowels written together having the same sound as one of 
them. 

17. Illustrate. Oa in the words oats, board, hoard, road 
etc. has a sound which is a substitute for the first sound of o. 
Also in toad, goad, poach etc. 

18. Give other illustrations. 

19. What is ao ? Ao in some situations is a digraph. 

20. Why is ao a digraph? Ao is a digraph, because it is 
two vowels written together having the same sound as one of 
them. 

21. Illustrate. Ao as in gaol has the first sound of a. 

22. What is oo ? Oo is a digraph, because it is two vowels 
written together having the same sound as one of them. 

23. Illustrate. Oo in loot has the fifth sound of o, — as 
in move ; in foot it has the fourth sound of o, — as in wolf 
etc. 

24. Give other illustrations. 

25. What are ee, aa etc. ? 

26. What is ai ? Ai is a digraph, because it is two vowels 
written together having the same sound as one of them. 

27. Illustrate. Ai in fail, mail, sail etc. has the first 
sound of a, jz. as in fate. Also in the words hail, pail, flail 
etc. 

28. Give other illustrations. 

29. What is ea ? Ea is a digraph, because it is two vowels 
written together having the same sound as one of them. 

30. Illustrate. Ea in eat, meat, seat, retreat etc. has the 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

first sound of e and in read, bread, head etc., it has the 
second sound of e. 
31. Give other illustrations. 

LESSON XXIII. 

Classes and Sounds of Letters Continued. — Triph- 
thongs AND TRIGRAPHS. 

1. Give some triphthongs. Uoy, uoi, eoi, eau, ieiv, ieu, 
uay etc. 

2. What is uoy ? Uoy is a triphthong, because it is three 
vowels written together having a different sound from that 
which is expressed by any single one of them. 

3. Illustrate. Uoy in buoy, buoyant and buoyancy is dif- 
ferent in sound from that of either u, o or y. 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. What is uoi ? Uoi is a triphthong, because it is three 
vowels written together having a sound different from that 
which is expressed by any single one of them. 

6. Illustrate. Uoi in quoit, quoit-player etc. has a sound 
different from that of either u, o or i. 

7. Give other illustrations. 

8. What is eau? Eau in some situations is a triphthong, 
because it is three vowels written together having a sound 
different from that expressed by any single one of them. 

9. Illustrate. Eau in beau and beaux has a sound dif- 
ferent from that of either e, a or u. 

10. Give some trigraphs ? Eau, aye, awe, eou, eye, aou, 
owe etc. ^ 

11. What is eau ? Eau is in some situations a trigraph. 

12. Why is it a trigraph? Eau is a trigraph, because it 
is three vowels written together having the same sound as one 
of them, 

13. Illustrate. Eau in beautiful, beauteous, beauty etc. 
has the first sound of u, -z. as in tube. 

14. Give other illustrations. 

15. Explain aye as in aye in the same way. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OB ORTHOGRAPHY. 53 

16. What is awe? Awe is a trigraph, because it is three 
vowels written together having the same sound as one of 
them. 

17. Illustrate. Aive in awe, awe-struck etc. has the fourth 
sound of a, — as in fall; aou in caoutchouc has the first 
sound of o, -zl as in no. 

18. How can diphthongs, digraphs, triphthongs and tri- 
graphs be recognized when they are found ? They can be 
recognized by applying to them their definitions as given 
above and observing whether they fulfil them or not. 

19. What is the next lesson ? The next lesson is the Dia- 
gram of Orthography filled up. 

20. What have the class now learned ? The class have 
learned in the preceding lessons to draw the blank diagram 
and to fill it up from the table on the next page after it. 

21. For what is this diagram now intended ? This filled 
up diagram is to be used as a test or proof of that work's 
correctness. 



54 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XXIV. 

DIAGEAM OF ORTHOGRAPHY, (Filled.) 



Names. 



sL Labials. 



Linguals. 



Linguo-dentals. 



Linguo-nasals. 



Palatals. 



Palato-nasals. 



Irregulars. 



Subwcals. 



b, m, v, w, ph 



r,l. 



d, g, j, s, y, z, 
th. 



n g, n. 



qu = k and w. 



ph, f, p, wh, 
gh. 



c, s, t, th, ch, 
ch, sh. 



c, h, k, gh. 



x = k and s. 



Vowels. 



Diphthongs. 



Digraphs. 



Triphthongs. 



Trigraphs. 



Irregulars. 



ei, ey, ew, ou, oy, ow, oi, ui, 
ue etc. 



aa, ae, ai, ao, au, ay, aw, ea, 
ee, ei, eo, eu, ey, ow, ie, oa, 
oo, oe, oi etc. 



uoy, uoi, eoi in Bourgeois, iew, 
nay, eau in beau, ieu etc. 



aye, awe, eau, eou, eye, aou, 
owe etc. 



w, as vowel, no sound. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OE ORTHOGRAPHY. 55 

LESSON XXV. 

Here make, utter or explode the sounds of all the letters 
and groups of letters in the English language. Explode 
each sound forcibly six times. Explode the different 
sounds of the vowels and double consonants separately. 
Here is the entire list. Learn to expand the lungs by 
drawing full breath. Continue this exercise even after the 
sounds are learned for the improvement of the voice. 



Letters. 


Double Conso- 
nants. 


Diph- 
thongs. 


Di- 
graphs. 


Triph- 
thongs. 


Trigraphs. 


a, a, a, a, a 


th, th 


ei 


ae 


iew 


aye 


b 


ph, ph 


ey 


oe 


uoy 


awe 


c, 9 


ch, ch 


ew 


aa 


uoi 


eau 


d 


wh 


ow 


ai 


uay 


eou 


e, e, e 


gh, gh 


<>y 


ao 


ieu 


eye 


f 


ng 


ou 


an 


eau 


iew 


g> " 


sh 


oi 


ay 


eoi 


owe 


h 


etc. 


ui 


aw 


etc. 


aou 


1, i, i", i 




ue 


ea 




etc. 


i 




etc. 


ee 






k 






ei 






1 






ie 






m 






eo 






n, n 






eu 






6, 6, 6, 6, o, o 






e y 






P 






ow 






q 






oa 






r 






00 






s, s 






oi 






t 






etc. 






u, ii, ii, u 












V 












w 












X 












y> y> y 












z 




• 









56 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XXVI. 

TABLE OF SUBSTITUTES. 





4 


Double, Consonant 

and 
Letter Substitutes. 


Diphthong and 
Digraph Substitutes. 


Triphthong and 

Trigraph 

Substitutes. 


1 

a 

2 

a 

3 

a 

4 

a 

5 

a 
b 
c 

9 

d 

i 
e 

2 
3 

e 
f 
g 
g 
h 

i 

I 

2 
1 
3 

i 

4 

i 

i 

k 
1 

m 
n 

i 
6 

2 

6 


i 

a 




ai in fail, ei m ml, 
ey in they, aa m 
-kajvm, ao in gaol. 


aye m aye, uoi m 
quoit. 


2 

a 








3 

a 








4 

a 


3 

6 


au m maul, ou m 
sought. 


awe m awe- 
struck. 


s 

a 




ea m we«r, ei m 




b 








c 


k, gh m foi^ft. 

T 






9 


s 






d 








i 
e 


4 
1 


ea m wea£, ee m 
feet, ie m JfeftdL 


uay m #w#2/. 


2 

e 




ay in says, ie mi 
friend. 




3 

e 


3 6 3 3 

i o xi y 






f 


ph, gh 






g 








g 


J 






h 








i 
I 


i 

y 


ei $n heighten. 


eye m eye. 


2 
i 


2 

y 


ee aw- Jeen, ai m 
captain. 





WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 



57 



LESSON XXVI. 

TABLE OF SUBSTITUTES.— Continued. 



If 



| 

4 


Double Consonant 
and 

Letter Substitutes. 


Diphthong and 
Digraph Substitutes. 


Triphthong and 

Trigraph 

Substitutes. 


3 

6 

4 

6 

5 




p 

r 

s 
s 
t 

1 

u 

2 

u 

3 

ii 

4 

u 

V 

w 

1 

y 

2 

y 

3 

y 

z 
th 

th 

ch 
ch 

ph 
ph 

sh 
gh 

T 

wh 
ng 


1 








m 
n 














n 

T 








1 

6 




ou in dough, ew 
in sew, oa in goal. 


eau in beau, owe, 
aou. 


2 

6 




ow in knowledge. 




4 

6 


4 

u 


oo in look, hook. 









oo in proof, ui in 
suit or fruit. 


ieu in lieu. 


p 








r 








s 


z 






t 








i 
u 




ew in new. 


e&xi in beauty ,iew 
in new. 


2 

u 




ou in enough, 
rough. 


eou in gorgeous. 


V 


ph in Stephen. 






w 








th 








th 








ch 








ch 

T 


sh 




• 


wh 








ng 








58 


40 


18 


12 etc. 


26 etc. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXVII. 

Explanation of Table of Substitutes. 

1. How many columns does the table of substitutes con- 
tain ? The table of substitutes contains five columns. 

2. What does the first column contain ? The first col- 
umn contains all the characters in the English language, 
together with the diacritical marks of loth vowels and conso- 
nants. 

3. How many letters are there in the English language ? 
There are twenty-six letters in the English language. 

4. To what number are these swelled by the diacritical 
marks ? This number is swelled to fifty-eight by repeating 
certain letters with their different marks. 

5. What does the second column contain ? This column 
contains such of these fifty-eight characters as represent ele- 
mentary sounds. 

6. How many of them are there? There are forty of 
these characters and combinations representing elementary 
sounds. 

7. How are these characters and combinations represent- 
ing elementary sounds selected ? To select them we com- 
mence at the top of the first column and take the first that 
come leaving out those that have the same sounds as those 
taken. 

8. What are the rest called ? The rest are called substi- 
tutes, because they have the same sounds as some of the 
others. 

9. Illustrate. K is a substitute for the hard sound of c 
and the third sound of o, o as in nor, for the fourth sound 
of a, d as in fall. Also z is a substitute for dull s and sharp 
s for soft c. 

10. G-ive other examples. ■ 

11. What then does the third column contain ? This 
column contains the letter and double consonant substitutes. 

12. How many letter and double consonant substitutes 
are there ? There are eighteen of them, making toith the forty 
elementary sounds the original fifty-eight sounds. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 59 

13. What does the fourth column contain? This column 
contains the diphthong and digraph substitutes. 

14. How many of them are there ? There are more than 
twenty-six diphthong and digraph substitutes. 

15. What does the fifth column contain ? The fifth col- 
umn contains the triphthong and trigraph substitutes. 

16. How many are there of these ? There are twelve or 
more of the triphthong and trigraph substitutes. 

17. For what is the table intended? This table is in- 
tended to show how the fifty-eight sounds are reduced to 
forty. 

18. What in short is the explanation of this fact ? The 
explanation is found in the doctrine of substitutes. 

19. Draw this table of substitutes on paper with ink. 

LESSON XXVIII. 

Let the class continue this last lesson until mastered. 

LESSON XXIX. 

Irregular Letters and Groups. 

1. When is y a consonant? Y is a consonant, when it 
commences a syllable. 

2. Illustrate. Yeast, York, young, yearly, youth, yellow 
etc. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. When y is a consonant, what kind is it ? Y, as a con- 
sonant, is a linguo-dental subvocal. 

5. How is its sound made ? The sound of y is made by 
placing the tongue against the side teeth and then uttering 
an undertone. 

6. Is i ever a consonant ? /'is sometimes a substitute for 
y and hence sometimes has the force of a consonant. 

7. When is i a substitute for y? I is a substitute for y 
in the terminations ion, ian and ien. 

8. Are these combinations diphthongs? These combi- 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

nations are not diphthongs nor digraphs but in this situation 
i is a consonant. 

9. Why ? Because it is a substitute for the consonant y, 

10. When is y a vowel ? .F"is a vowel in all other situa- 
tions and is often silent. 

11. Illustrate. Type, hymn, myrrh, rhyme etc. 

12. When is w a consonant. W is always a consonant, 
when it has the first or second place in a syllable. 

13. Illustrate. Wolf, wound, switch, twitch etc. 

14. What kind of a consonant is it? PTis a labial sub- 
vocal. 

15. When is w a vowel ? TFis a vowel in all other situa- 
tions and as a vowel it seems to have no separate use but to 
be always used in a diphthong or a digraph. 

16. Illustrate. Now, few, bow, how, saw, gnaw, paw etc. 

17. In the terminations cean, cial, sion and tion do these 
vowels form a diphthong? These vowels do not form a 
diphthong but ce, ci, si and ti are substitutes for sh. 

18. Illustrate. Inversion is equal to invershon and 
creation is equal to creashon. 

19. In the terminations ceous and cious do these vowels 
form a trigraph ? They do not but ce and ci are substitutes 
for sh. 

20. Illustrate. The word gracious is equal to grashus 
and herbaceous is equal to herbashus etc. 

21. Give other illustrations. 

22. Is / in all situations an aspirate ? F in the word of 
is pronounced as a subvocal and has the same sound as v. 

23. Has c ever an exceptional sound ? In the word sacri- 
fice c has the sound of dull s or z. 

24. What exceptions are there to the sounds of u? U 
has the sound of e short in bury and of i short in busy. 

25. What exceptions are there in the use of e and o ? E 
has the sound of % in England and o the sound of i in women. 

26. How is q used? Q is always followed by u and these 
together have the sound of h and w, 

27. Illustrate. Quack is equal to JcwacJc. 



WORD- ANALYSIS OK ORTHOGRAPHY. 61 

28. How is the sound of one and once explained ? These 
words one and once formerly had a to before them, the sound 
of which they still retain. 

29. What exception in the use of x ? X has sometimes 
the sound and force of z. 

30. Illustrate. Xerxes, Xenia etc. 

31. What exception in the use of i ? In alien i is equal 
to y as a consonant and ought to be analyzed as a consonant 
as in many other words such as gracious, facial etc. 

32. What is the difference between the digraph ea and ea? 
Ea as in read has the first sound of e and ea as in read has 
the second sound of e. 

33. What is the rule about c and g? and g are hard 
before a, o and u and soft before e, i and y : as call, colt, cut ; 
cell, decide, cyst; gad, got, gull; gem, gin, gymnast. 

34. What exception is there in the use of gh. Gh, instead 
of the sound of /, has sometimes that of k or hard c, as in 
lough, hough etc. 

35. What is d in the end of a word after aspirates ? D, 
in such instances, is by some considered an aspirate. 

36. Illustrate. Eeproached, rasped, asked, tasked, 
smashed, rinsed. 

37. Give other examples. 

38. What is aou in caoutchouc? Aou in caoutchouc is a 
trigraph, because it is three vowels written together having 
the same sound as one of them. 

39. H&sph a second sound? Ph has a second sound as 
in Stephen, phial etc. It, as also the second sound of gh, 
should be marked with the half-cross (t). 

LESSON XXX. 

Names of Letters. 

1. Are letters the same in all languages? In all lan- 
guages letters are mainly the same in class and sound but 
different in name and form. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Illustrate. The Greek letter p (rho) is like the Eng- 
lish letter r (ar) in sound and in class but unlike it in name 
and form. 

3. Give other examples. The Greek letters r (tau), fi (mu) 
and a (sigma) are like the English letters t, m and s in class 
and sound but different in name and form. 

4. What is the origin of the names of the English letters ? 
The vowels are named from their first sounds and all the 
consonants except aitch and double u have names suggested 
by their sounds. 

5. Give the first five letters with their names in the sin- 
gular and in the plural. 

Letters. Names. Plurals. 

a A Aes 

b B Bees 

c Oee Gees 

d Dee Dees 

e E Ees 

6. Give the next five letters with their names and their 
plurals. 

Letters. Names. Plurals, 
f Eff Effs 

g Gee Gees 

h Aitch Aitches 

i I Ies 

j Jay Jays 

7. Give the next five letters with their names and plurals. 

Letters. Names. Plurals, 
k Kay Kays 

1 El Els 

m Em Ems 

n En Ens 

o Oes 

8. Give the next five letters with their names and plurals. 



Letters. 


Names. 


Plurals 


P 


Pee 


Pees 


q 


Que 


Ques 


r 


Ar 


Ars 


s 


Ess 


Esses 


t 


Tee 


Tees 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 63 

9. Give the next six with their names and plurals. 



Letters. 


Names. 


Plurals. 


u 


u 


Ues, 


V 


Vee 


Vees 


W 


Double-u 


Double-ues 


X 


Ex 


Exes 


y 


Wy 


Wies 


z 


Zee 


Zees 



10. Why are these names and plurals preferred ? These 
are the names and plurals used in the schools of England 
and the language ought to be preserved pure. Useless inno- 
vations ought to be fought against. 

LESSON XXXI. 

Forms of Letters. 

1. As to form how many kinds of letters have we in Eng- 
lish ? In English there are four kinds ; Old English, Italics, 
Script and Roman. 

2. Illustrate the first variety. Sn tf\it near of outr 
Co*© one tfyonsano fcigffvt Ivanovo ana fcigF|ig^ 
fine- 

3. When are these characters used ? These characters 
are still sometimes used in circulars and inscriptions. 

4. What are italics and when used ? Italics are slanted 
letters and are used in the Bible to shoiv that the words printed 
in them were supplied by the translators and in other books to 
show that the words printed in them are emphatic. 

5. In what other way may emphasis be expressed ? By 
using very heavy type for the letters. 

6. What are script letters ? -g?c<itfa ' <dffe<id ate tcdec/ 
4,44- ^i&Mi&'wiwiwifz, &'ndti<le dAa-Aed fa dfitid/Ae m>&fa<m 



7. How can you emphasize a word in script ? By drawing 
one line under it. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. How will a printer print an underscored word? A 
printer will print an underscored word in italics. 

9. How can double emphasis be indicated ? By a double 
underscore. 

10. How will printers print this ? Printers will print a 
double underscore in small capitals. 

11. How may triple emphasis be indicated? Triple 
emphasis may be indicated by three underscores. 

12. How will this be printed ? A word with three under- 
scores will be printed in capitals. 

13. How many kinds of Eoman characters are there? 
There are two kinds small letters arid capitals. 

14. How many varieties of small letters are there ? There 
are eleven usual kinds : 

Great Primer, 

English, 

Pica, 

Small Pica, 

Long Primer, 

Bourgeois, 

Brevier, 

Minion, 

Nonpareil, 

Agate, 

Pearl. 

15. What are capitals? CAPITALS ARE LARGE 
LETTERS USED, AS THE NAME INDICATES, FOR 
HEADINGS AND THE FIRST LETTERS OF PRIN- 
CIPAL WORDS. 

16. How many kinds of capitals are there? These are 

TWO KINDS CALLED CAPITALS AND SMALL CAPITALS. 

LESSON XXXII. 

Rules for Capitals. 

1. What is the first rule for capitals? Very important 
words may begin with capitals. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 65 

2. Illustrate. This is the best treatise on Mining. Sad 
will be the separations on the Great Day. 

3. Give three other illustrations. 

4. What is the second rule? I and used as separate 
words are written in capitals. 

5. What is the third rule ? Names of the Deity and titles 
of honor begin with capitals. 

6. Illustrate. This is for Mr. Shanks. That is poor Dr. 
Peterson. Soon after the evacuation of Eichmond Gen. Lee 
surrendered. 

7. Give other illustrations. 

8. What is the fourth rule? Names personified begin 
with capitals. Blow gentle Zephyrs upon my locks. Linger 
Ye Sweet Sounds on mine ear. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. What is the fifth rule? Proper names and words 
derived from them begin with capitals. 

11. Illustrate. England, Englishman, English, America, 
American. 

12. Give other illustrations. 

13. What is the sixth rule ? Every verse of poetry begins 
with a capital. 

14. What is the seventh rule ? The first word of a direct 
quotation begins with a capital. 

15. Illustrate. The apostle said " Woe is me, if I preach 
not the gospel." 

16. Give other illustrations. 

17. What is the eighth rule ? The items in a strict enu- 
meration begin with capitals. 

18. Illustrate. There have died with cholera ; In Spain, 
five hundred ; In Brazil, one thousand ; In Austria, two 
thousand. 

19. Give other illustrations. 

20. What is the ninth rule ? The next word after intro- 
ductory words begins with a capital. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

21. Illustrate. Dr. Johnson, 

Dear Sir ; 

Please come at once. 
Resolved, That a vote of thanks be given. 

22. Give another illustration. 

23. What is the tenth rule ? The first word in every sen- 
tence begins with a capital. 

24. Illustrate. John runs. James sings. Susan spins. 

25. Give three other illustrations. 

LESSON XXXIII. 

Eules for Capitals Continued. 
Repeat the first five rules and give an example of each. 

LESSON XXXIV. 

Rules for Capitals Continued. 
Repeat the second five rules and give an example of each. 

LESSON XXXV. 

Rules for Capitals Continued. 
Repeat the ten rules for capitals word for word. 

LESSON XXXVI. 

Rules for Capitals Continued. 

Now give the ten rules for capitals with an example of 
each. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OK ORTHOGRAPHY. 67 

FOURTH AND FIFTH DIVISIONS. 
LESSON XXXVII. 

Syllables and Words. 

1. How should syllables and words be treated ? Syllables 
and words should be treated together, because they have a 
very close relation to each other. 

2. What is a syllable ? A syllable is a letter or group of 
letters or a sound or group of sounds pronounced by a 
single impulse of the voice. 

3. Illustrate. A, o, this, bat, mat, dough, rough, tough 
etc. 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. What is a monosyllable ? A monosyllable is a word of 
one syllable. 

6. Illustrate. Feint, faint, weight, rat etc. 

7. Give other examples. 

8. What is a dissyllable ? A dissyllable is a word of two 



9. Illustrate. Birthright, bombshell, downfall, accede, 
receive etc. 

10. Give other examples. 

11. What is a polysyllable ? A polysyllable is a word of 
many syllables. 

12. Illustrate. Illustration, conflagration, incapability, 
incompatibility etc, 

13. Give other illustrations. 

14. What is a trisyllable ? A trisyllable is a polysyllable 
of three syllables. 

15. Illustrate. Disinfect, reconstruct, imperfect, ab- 
sconding etc. 

16. Give other illustrations. 

17. Of what is a syllable composed ? A syllable is com- 
posed of one or more vowels alone or of one or more vowels 
with one or more consonants. 



bb ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

18. Can there be a syllable without a consonant ? Many 
syllables are without consonants. 

19. Illustrate. A-e-ri-al, a-re-a, i-de-a etc. 

20. Give other illustrations. 

21. Can there be a syllable without a vowel ? A syllable 
cannot be formed without a vowel. 

22. Is it necessary that the vowel should always have a 
sound? It is not necessary that the vowel should have a 
sound. A syllable is often formed with two or more conso- 
nants and a silent or obscure vowel. 

23. Illustrate. The last syllable in the words bat-tie, 
cat-tie, ma-noeu-vre etc. 

24. Give other illustrations. 

25. What is a word ? A word is a syllable or a group of 
syllables used in forming sentences. 

26. Why is a word not the sign of an idea or of a thought ? 
Because it takes a sentence to be the sign of an idea or 
thought. 

27. I have a thought. What is it ? No one except my- 
self can tell, because it is not expressed. 

28. I write or speak this thought " Leaves are green." 
Now what is the sign by which you know this thought? 
The sign of this thought is the whole sentence "Leaves are 
green." 

29. Is " leaves " the sign of that thought ? Leaves is not, 
because it does not express it. 

30. Is " are " the sign of my thought ? Are is not, be- 
cause it does not express it. 

31. Is "green" the sign of this thought? Green is not 
the sign of this thought, because it does not express it. 

32. What, then, is the sign of this thought or idea? It 
takes the entire sentence " Leaves are green " to be the sign 
of this thought. 

33. What else may a word be called ? A word may be 
also called the sign of a Subject of Thought. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 69 

LESSON XXXVIII. 

Spelling. 

1. What is spelling? Spelling is giving the elements or 
component parts of words. 

2. How many kinds of spelling are there ? There are two 
kinds of spelling, by the letter-names and by the letter- 
sounds or alphabetic and phonetic spelling. 

3. What is alphabetic spelling? Alphabetic spelling 
divides the word into syllables, gives the letter-names in each 
syllable and then pronounces each syllable and the word. 

4. What would be the first step in spelling the word in- 
comprehensibility by syllabic spelling? The first step 
would be to spell and pronounce the first syllable. 

5. Illustrate. I-n = In-. 

6. What would be the second step? The second step 
would be to spell and pronounce the second syllable. 

7. Illustrate. C-o-m =. com-. 

8. What the third step? The third step would be to 
pronounce both syllables together. 

9. Illustrate. In-com- 

10. What the fourth step ? To spell and pronounce the 
third syllable.. 

11. Illustrate. P-r-empre^. 

12. Fifth step. To pronounce all three syllables to- 
gether. 

13. Illustrate. In-com-pre~. 

14. What the sixth step? To spell and pronounce the 
fourth syllable. 

15. Illustrate. H-e-n = hen- 

16. What the seventh step? The seventh step would be 
to pronounce all four syllables together. 

17. Illustrate. In-com-pre-hen-. 

18. What the eighth step ? To spell and pronounce the 
fifth syllable. 

19. Illustrate. S-i = si- 

20. What the ninth step ? To pronounce the entire word 
so far as spelled. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

21. Illustrate. In-com-pre-hen-si-. 

22. What the tenth step? To spell and pronounce the 
sixth syllable. 

23. Illustrate. B-i-l = bil-. 

24. What the eleventh step? To pronounce the entire 
word so far as spelled.- 

25. Illustrate. In-com-pre-hen-si-bil-. 

26. What the twelfth step ? To spell and pronounce the 
seventh syllable. 

27. Illustrate. I = i-. 

28. What is the thirteenth step? To pronounce the 
entire word so far as spelled. 

29. Illustrate. In-eom-pre-hen-si-bil-i- 

30. What the fourteenth step ? To spell and pronounce 
the last syllable. 

31. Illustrate. T-y=rty. 

32. What the fifteenth step ? To pronounce the entire 
word. 

33. Illustrate. In'-com-pre-hen-si-bir-i-ty. 

34. Spell the word six times in this way. 

35. First write with ink then mark and then spell in this 
way twenty-five polysyllables. 

LESSON XXXIX. 

Spelling Continued— Syllabification. 

1. For what two reasons is accurate syllabification essen- 
tial in spelling ? First, because only by it can children 
learn to read well; second, because only by it can the minds 
of young children be properly trained. 

2. Explain the first reason. Children, that can not sylla- 
bify, cannot pronounce a word and so cannot read or learn 
to read. 

3. Explain the second reason. The nature of the mind 
is to reason forwards and not backwards. 

4. What is reasoniug forwards? Eeasoning forwards is 
thinking from the things that compose an object up to the 
object. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 71 

5. What is reasoning backwards ? Reasoning backwards 
is thinking from an object back down to the things that 
compose it. 

6. How do beginners reason? Beginners reason from 
individuals up to generals and not from generals down to 
individuals. 

7. How should the pupil proceed in learning a word ? 
He should go from the letters up to the syllables and from 
the syllables up to the word and so forth. 

8. What is the first object of syllabification ? The first 
object of syllabification is to enable a child or any reader 
to pronounce words readily at sight. 

9. What is the second object? The second object is to 
enable the writer to know where to divide a word at the end 
of a line. 

10. What is the third object ? The third object is to 
teach the young mind nice classification. As botany and 
geography teach us to classify our knowledge so does cor- 
rect spelling also. 

11. How many rules are there for syllabification? There 
are four rules for dividing words into syllables. 

12. Give the first. Make a syllable for every vowel or 
group of vowels except silent vowels. 

13. Illustrate. An-ax-ag-o-ras, Con-stan-ti-no-ple, re-con- 
struc-tion, rec-om-men-da-tion. 

14. Give other illustrations. 

15. Give the second. In syllabifying place consonants 
with those vowels which they most naturally affect. 

16. Illustrate. Fe-ver, liv-er, riv-er (a ivater -course), 
ri-ver {one who rives'), cov-er, ro-ver, mov-er, hov-er etc. 

17. Give other illustrations. 

18. Give the third. Separate the affixes from the primi- 
tive words. 

19. Illustrate. Child-less, rough-ness, re-vive, con-triv- 
ing, dis-place-ment, con -sign-men t. 

20. Give other illustrations. 

21. What is the fourth ? The suffix ed is a separate syl- 






72 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

lable when e is sounded but when e is silent the d is pro- 
nounced as one syllable with the preceding letters. 

22. Illustrate. Housed, round-ed, toed, towed, squeezed, 
fad-ed, pound-ed, forged, pervad-ed, decid-ed, rust-ed etc. 

23. Give other illustrations. 



LESSON XL. 

Rules for Spelling. 

1. Give the first rule for spelling. Where there is no 
other rule we must follow usage. 

2. Give the second. Compounds retain the orthography 
of the simple words which compose them. 

3. Give the third rule. Final y, except in monosyllables, 
must be changed into i before an additional termination, if 
preceded by a consonant, but otherwise not. 

4. Illustrate. Bray, braying, merry, merrier, merriest, 
portray, portraying, portrayer. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. Give the fourth. Words essentially formed by the ter- 
mination take ize but monosyllables and those formed by 
prefixes take ise. 

7. Illustrate. Brutalize, agonize, aggrandize, memorize, 
memorialize; surprise, surmise, circumcise, compromise, 
devise etc. 

8. Give other illustrations. 

9. Give the fifth. Monosyllables and words accented on the 
last syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a 
single vowel, generally double the last letter before an addi- 
tional termination, if it begins with a vowel, but otherwise 
not. 

10. Illustrate. Fat, fatter; hot, hotter; wet, wetter; 
refit, refitting; commit, committing; toil, toiling; boil, 
boiling ; differ, differing etc. 

11. Give other illustrations. 

12. Give rule the sixth. Monosyllables with a single 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 73 

vowel double the final consonant, if they end in /, I or s but 
otherwise not. As staff, mill, pass etc. 

13. Give illustrations. 

14. Give rule the seventh. Final silent e is omitted before 
a voivel but retained before a consonant commencing the next 
syllable. 

15. Illustrate. Tiring, wiring, tireless, wireless etc. 

16. Give other illustrations. 

17. Give rule the eighth. Words ending in a double letter 
retain it, when they take suffixes not beginning with the 
same letter. 

18. Illustrate. Grass, grassless ; full, fullness etc. 

19. Give other illustrations. 

20. Give rule the ninth. Monosyllables and English 
words end in cJc instead of double c, but foreign words dis- 
pense with the h. 

21. Illustrate. Quack, smack ; almanac, maniac, italic etc. 

22. Give other illustrations. 

23. Give rule the tenth. No words but monosyllables 
and their compounds end in U, 

24. Illustrate. Appal, excel, rebel ; call, recall, stall, fore- 
stall etc. 

25. Give other illustrations. 

LESSON XLT. 

Rules for Spelling Continued. 
Give the first five rules for spelling with illustrations. 

LESSON XLII. 

Rules for Spelling Continued. 
Give the second five rules for spelling with illustrations. 

LESSON XLIII. 

Rules for Spelling Continued. 
Give the ten rules for spelling with their illustrations. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLIV. 

Eules for Spelling Continued. 
Give the rules for spelling again. 

LESSON XLV. 

Rules for Spelling Continued. 
Give the rules for spelling again. 

LESSON XLVI. 

Eules for Spelling Concluded. 
Give the rules backwards from last to first. 

LESSON XLVII. 

Exercises in Spelling. 

1. How many essential school-room exercises are there in 
spelling ? There are four exercises in spelling. 

2. What is the first ? First let all or several of the pupils 
one at a time give out the lesson to the class under the 
teacher's supervision. 

3. What is the second ? As the teacher gives out the les- 
son, let the pupils write it, dividing the syllables by hyphens 
and placing the diacritical marks and accents. 

4. What is the third ? Pupils should be drilled as long 
as they are at school in dictation exercises, writing the sen- 
tences at the teacher's dictation and passing them to each 
other and last to the teacher for correction. 

5. What are dictation exercises ? Dictation exercises are 
sentences to be written containing words of difficult or 
ambiguous spelling. 

6. Illustrate. In the State of Maine the horse with long 
mane ran with main force. During a shower of rain the 
driver drew his rein at the relay in the reign of King James. 

7. Give other illustrations. 



WORD- ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 75 

8. How is a good knowledge of spelling to be acquired ? 
By vigorous study upon this plan and by observation in 
reading and writing. 

9. Give and often repeat the 

Scheme of Spelling: 

1. Spell and pronounce the first syllable. 

2. Spell and pronounce the second syllable. 
S. Now pronounce both of them together. 

4. Spell and pronounce the third syllable. 

5. Now pronounce all together. 

6. Spell and pronounce the fourth syllable. 

7. Now pronounce all together and so for others. 

10. According to this scheme spell the following words : 
Congratulate, recognize, sermonize, reconstruct, affluent, 
irrefragability, supralepsarian, interoceanic, incombusti- 
bility, incomprehensibility, reconcilement. 

11. According to it spell these words: Involution, cir- 
cumstantial, invigorate, enfranchise, resurrection, readjust- 
ment, admonish, incompatibility, indefatigability. 

12. Spell these: Irregularity, impenetrability, incombus- 
tibility, indestructibility, insurrectionary. 

13. Improvise others. 

14. What is the fourth exercise ? The fourth exercise is 
phonetic spelling or Word-analysis. 

LESSON XLVIII. 

Phonetic Spelling. 

1. What is phonetic spelling or spelling by letter-sounds 
or word-analysis ? Word-analysis is the science oi pronuncia- 
tion. 

2. What are the operations of analysis ? The operations 
are three ; first, separating a word into its syllables ; second, 
separating the syllables into their elementary sounds and 
third, spelling the word by the letter-sounds. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. What is the difference between pronouncing a word 
and spelling it by sound or phonetically ? Spelling by 
sound is pronouncing a word slowly, while pronouncing it is 
spelling it by sound rapidly. 

4. When we spell a word by sound, for instance, h-a-r-d, we 
are pronouncing it slowly. But when we pronounce a word, 
for instance hard, we are spelling it by sound rapidly. 

5. G-ive other illustrations. 

6. What is the object or purpose of analysis? The object 
of studying analysis is to learn to pronounce any and all 
words correctly at sight. 

7. What is the meaning of the word analysis ? Analysis 
means a loosening up. 

8. What is its etymology ? Analysis comes from ava (up) 
and Xvats a loosening. 

9. Illustrate this meaning. Shaking up newly mown 
hay, to cure or dry it by letting in the sun and air, is an 
analysis or loosening up. 

10. What then is the general definition of analysis ? 
Analysis is the separation of any compound or complex object 
into the elements of which it is composed. 

11. Are mistakes in pronunciation common ? Few per- 
sons ever speak or converse for any length of time without 
making mistakes in the pronunciation of their mother- 
tongue. 

12. Illustrate. Common mistakes are made by using sov- 
ereign for sovereign, to for to, dog for dog, rock for rock, 
song for song etc. 

13. Give other illustrations. 

14. Can incorrectness in speaking and writing English be 
cured by merely hearing good pronunciation ? It has been 
supposed it could but practically it has never been done. 

15. Illustrate. Pronunciation no more than music can 
be learned by the ear; learners must be exercised and 
drilled in the laws, rules and principles of the science. 

16. What exercise embraces the whole subject of ortho- 
graphy? The exercise of word-analysis. 



WORD- ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 77 

17. How can an illiterate rustic be taught correct pro- 
nunciation ? By being thoroughly drilled in word-analysis. 

18. What is the standard or guide of pronunciation? 
The standard is not some educated man's opinion but usage. 

19. Where is usage recorded ? Usage is recorded in the 
great dictionaries of the language. 

20. How do they indicate the pronunciation of words ? 
The pronunciation of a vowel is indicated by diacritical 
marks based upon and used to show the analysis of the 
words. 

21. Where do dictionaries explain the meaning of their 
marks ? They explain their diacritical marks in their key 
to pronunciation. 

22. Illustrate. Con-do'-lence, ciV-ciim-spect, cir-cum-ja/- 
cent etc., with the diacritical marks thus placed on them. 

23. Give other illustrations. 



ANALYSIS OF SYLLABLES. 
LESSON XLIX. 

Scheme for the Analysis of a Syllable. 

1. A syllable? Why? 

2. Number of letters ? 

3. Number of sounds ? 

4. Number of silent letters ? 

5. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 
the first letter or group of letters. 

6. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference to 
each of its sounds. 

7. Tell and explode three times the sound it has here. 

8. Do the same with all the letters and groups. 

9. Explode the sounds and pronounce the syllable twice. 

LESSON L. 

Here go over, study and commit to memory the following 
lessons on the analysis of the syllable Fringe and others 
applying the preceding Scheme : 



78 english grammar. 

Analysis of Fringe. 

1. A syllable? Why? Fringe is a syllable, because it is 
a sound or group of sounds or a letter or group of letters 
pronounced by a single impulse of the voice. 

2. Number of letters ? Fringe has six letters. 

3. Number of sounds ? Fringe has five sounds. 

4. Number of silent letters ? Fringe has one silent letter. 

5. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 
the first letter or group of letters. The first letter /has but 
one sound, as in fife. 

6. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference to 
each sound. F with this sound is a consonant, because it 
cannot form a syllable without a vowel ; a labial, because its 
sound cannot be made without the lips, and an aspirate, 
because its sound is a mere breathing. 

7. Tell and explode three times the sound it has here. 
The sound here is . 

8. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 
the second letter or group of letters. The second letter r 
has one sound, as in bird. 

9. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference to 
each sound. R with this sound is a consonant, because it 
cannot form a syllable without a vowel ; a lingual, because 
its sound cannot be made without the tongue, and a sub- 
vocal, because its sound is an undertone. 

10. Tell and explode three times the sound it has here. 
R has here the sound, . 

11. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 
the third letter or group of letters. The third letter i has 
four sounds ; first jr. as in pine, second j=l as in pin, third 
-iL as in sir and fourth — as in machine. 

12. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference 
to each sound. 2" with any sound is a vowel, because all of 
its sounds are full, clear tones. 

13. Tell and explode three times the sound it has here, 
i" in. this situation has the second sound, ^l -j=l _^.. 



WORD- ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 79 

14. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 
the fourth letter or group of letters. The fourth letter n 

has two sounds; the first, as in nine and the second, 

as in ink. 

15. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference 
to each sound. N with the first sound is a consonant, 
because it cannot form a syllable without a vowel ; alinguo- 
nasal, because its sound cannot be made without the tongue 
and nose, and a subvocal, because its sound is an under- 
tone. N with the second sound is a consonant, because it 
cannot form a syllable without a vowel; a palato-nasal, 
because its sound cannot be made without the palate and 
nose, and a subvocal, because its sound is an undertone. 

16. Tell and explode three times the sound it has here. 
N in this situation has the first sound, . 

17. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 
the fifth letter or group of letters. The fifth letter g has 

two sounds ; the hard sound, as in gun, and the soft 

sound, as in germ. 

18. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference 
to each sound. G with the first sound is a consonant, 
because it cannot form a syllable without a vowel; a palatal, 
because its sound cannot be made without the palate, and 
a subvocal, because its sound is an undertone. G with the 
second sound is a consonant, because it cannot form a syl- 
lable without a vowel ; a linguo-dental, because its sound 
cannot be made without the tongue and teeth, and a sub- 
vocal, because its sound is an undertone. 

19. Tell and explode three times the sound it has here. 
G here has the sound, . 

20. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 
the sixth letter or group of letters. The sixth letter e has 
three sounds ; first -=- as in me, second ±L as in met and 
third — as in her. 

21. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference 
to each of its sounds. E with any sound is a vowel, because 
all of its sounds are full, clear tones. 






80 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

22. E here has no sound. 

23. Explode the sounds and pronounce the syllable twice. 
fringe, — fringe. 

LESSON LI. 

Analysis of Veil and Seal. 

1. A syllable? Why? Veil is a syllable, because it is 
a letter or group of letters or a sound or group of sounds 
pronounced by a single impulse of the voice. 

2. Number of letters ? Veil has four letters. 

3. Number of sounds ? Veil has three sounds. 

4. Number of silent letters? Veil has no silent letter 
but two of its letters form a group and unite in one sound. 

5. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 
the first letter or group of letters. The first letter v has 
but one sound, as in revive. 

6. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference to 
each sound. V with this its only sound is a consonant, 
because it cannot form a syllable without a vowel ; a labial, 
because its sound cannot be made without the lips, and a 
subvocal, because its sound is an undertone. 

7. Tell and explode three times the sound it has here. 
Here v has its only sound, . 

8. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 
the second combination. The second combination of letters 

ei has but one sound, as in the word freight. Its 

sound is the same as that of a long in fate. 

9. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference to 
each of its sounds. Ei with this its only sound is a diph- 
thong, because it is two vowels written together having a 
sound different from that of either of them. 

10. Tell and explode three times the sound it has in this 
situation. Here the diphthong ei has its only sound, . 

11. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 

the last letter. The last letter I has but one sound, • 

as in lull. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 81 

12. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference 
to each sound. L with this sound is a consonant, because 
it cannot form a syllable without a vowel ; a lingual, because 
its sound cannot be made without the tongue, and a sub- 
vocal, because its sound is an undertone. 

13. Tell and explode three times the sound it has here. 
Here the letter I has the sound of as in lull. 

14. Explode the sounds and pronounce the syllable twice. 
— •■ veil, veil. 

Analysis of Seal. 

15. A syllable? Why? Seal is a syllable, because it is 
a letter or group of letters or a sound or group of sounds 
pronounced by a single impulse of the voice. 

16. Number of letters ? Seal has four letters. 

17. Number of sounds ? Seal has three sounds. 

18. Number of silent letters ? Seal has no silent letters 
but two of its letters unite in one sound. 

19. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 
the first letter or group of letters. The first letter s has 
two sounds, the sharp and the dull. The sharp sound is — 
as in sit and the dull sound is as in rise. 

20. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference 
to each of its sounds. S with its sharp sound is a conso- 
nant, because it cannot form a syllable without a vowel ; a 
linguo-dental, because its sound cannot be made without 
the tongue and teeth, and an aspirate, because its sound is a 
mere breathing. S with its dull sound is a consonant, be- 
cause it cannot form a syllable without a vowel ; a linguo- 
dental, because its sound cannot be made without the tongue 
and teeth, and a subvocal, because its sound is an undertone. 

21. Tell and .explode three times the sound it has here. 
In this word the letter has the sharp sound, as in sit. 

22. Tell and explode with illustrations the second combi- 
nation. Ea has two sounds, as in bead, knead etc., 

and as head, dread etc. The first is like the first 

sound of e and the second is like the second sound of e. 






82 ENGLISH 6EAMMAE. 

23. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference 
to each of its sounds. t Ea with either of its sounds is a 
digraph, because it is two vowels written together having 
the same sound as one of them. 

24. Tell and explode three times the sound it has here. 
Ea here has its first or long sound, . 

25. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 
the last letter or group of letters. The last letter I has hut 
one sound, as in the words lull, loll etc. 

26. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference 
to each of its sounds. L with this sound, which is the only 
sound it has, is a consonant, because it cannot form a sylla- 
ble without a vowel ; a lingual, because its sound cannot be 
made without the tongue, and a subvocal, because its sound 
is an undertone. 

27. Tell and explode three times the sound it has here. 
In this situation I has its only sound, . 

28. Explode the sounds and pronounce the syllable twice. 
seal, seal. 

LESSON LII. 

Analysis of Syllables Continued. 

Analyze -ure, 

LESSON LIII. 

Analysis of Syllables Continued. 

Analyze -fig. 

LESSON LIV. 

Analysis of Syllables Continued. 

Analyze Trans* 

LESSON LV. 

Analysis of UN (in the Word Unbroken). 

1. A syllable? Why? Tin is a syllable, because it is a 
letter or group of letters or a sound or group of sounds pro- 
nounced by a single impulse of the voice. 

2. Number of letters ? Tin has two letters. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OK ORTHOGRAPHY. 83 

3. Number of sounds ? Un has two sounds. 

4. Number of silent letters? The syllable un has no 
silent letters. 

5. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of the 
first letter or group of letters. The first letter u has four 
sounds ; first -=- as in tube, second — as in tub, third _ll as 
in fur and fourth — as in full. 

6. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference to 
each of its sounds. U with any sound is a vowel, because 
all of its sounds are full, clear tones. 

7. Tell and explode three times the sound it has here. 
?7here has the third sound, — — — as in fur. 

8. Tell and explode with illustrations all the sounds of 
the second letter or group of letters. The second letter n 

has two sounds. The first is as in nun and the 

second is — as in ink. 

T T T T x 

9. Classify the letter or group of letters with reference to 
each of its sounds. N with the first sound is a consonant, 
because it never forms a syllable without a vowel ; a linguo- 
nasal, because its sound cannot be made without the tongue 
and nose, and a subvocal, because its sound is an undertone. 
JVwith the second sound is a consonant, because it can- 
not form a syllable without a vowel ; a palato-nasal, because 
its sound cannot be made without the palate and nose, and 
a subvocal, because its sound is an undertone. 

10. Tell and explode three times the sound it has here. 
Here the letter n has the first sound, as in nun. 

11. Explode the sounds and pronounce the syllable twice. 
~ — un, — — un. 

LESSON LVI. 

Analysis of Syllables Continued. 

Analyze bro-. 

LESSON LVII. 

Analysis of Syllables Continued. 
Analyze ken. Also analyze dog, cat, rat, but, force, road, 



84 > ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mouse, sauce, rough, mice, fall, case, dove, stove, move, 
veil, fail, mall. 

WOKD ANALYSIS. 

Here apply what has been learned about the syllable to 
the analysis of words, according to the following scheme : 

Scheme of Analyzing a Word. 

1. A word ? Why ? 

2. Number of syllables ? 

3. Analyze the first syllable. 

4. Analyze the second syllable. 

5. Spell and pronounce both together. 

6. Analyze the third syllable. 

7. Spell and pronounce all three together. 

8. Analyze the fourth syllable. 

9. Spell by sound and pronounce the word. 

LESSON LVIII. 

Analysis of Transfigure. 

1. A Word ? Why ? Transfigure is a word, because it is 
a syllable or a group of connected syllables used in forming 
sentences. 

2. Number of syllables ? This word has three syllables. 

3. Analyze the first syllable. (Let this be analyzed like 
the syllable fringe.) 

4. Analyze the second syllable. 

5. Spell and pronounce both together. 

trans fig = transfig. 

6. Analyze the third syllable. 

7. Spell all these together. trans 

f ig = transfig ure == transfigure. 

LESSON" LIX. 

Analysis of Unbroken. 

1. A word ? Why ? Unbroken is a word, because it is 
a syllable or a group of connected syllables used in forming 
sentences. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 85 

2. Number of syllables ? Unbroken has three syllables. 

3. Analyze the first syllable. 

4. Analyze the second syllable. 

5. Spell and pronounce both together. — — tin 

bro — unbro-. 

6. Analyze the third syllable. 

7. Spell and pronounce all these. — iin — bro 

= unbro ken = un-bro-ken. 

LESSON LX. 

Word-Analysis Continued. 
Analyze Subterfuge. (Sub'-ter-fiige.) 

LESSON LXI. 

Word-Analysis Continued. 
Analyze Transfigurate. (Trans-f ig'-ur-ate.) 

LESSON LXII. 

Word-Analysis Continued. 
Analyze Transatlantic. (Trans'-at-lan'-tic.) 

LESSON LXIII. 

Word-Analysis Continued. 
Analyze Constantinople. (C6n'-stan'-ti-no'-ple.) 

LESSON LXIV. 

Word-Analysis Continued. 

Analyze Incomprehensibility. (In-com'-pre-hen-si-biF- 
i-ty.) 

LESSON LXV. 

Word-Analysis Continued. 

Analyze fry (a word of one syllable), stew, than, wring, 
wrought, fight, knight, rat, mat, set, split, slab, strap, squab, 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

wad, not, rot, for, nor, wolf, howl, sound, fail, view, 
beauty, buoyant, awful, feint, saint, abstract, transplanting, 
frightening, graduate, constructive, resentment, combusti- 
bility, transmigrate, incombustibility etc. 



SELECTIONS FOR DRILLING IN WORD- ANALYSIS. 

By the schemes of analyzing syllables and words, analyze 
every word in these following selections. 

FIRST SELECTION. 

The Little Lord and the Farmer, 

A little lord, engaged in play, 
Carelessly threw his ball away ; 
So far beyond the brook it flew, 
His lordship knew not what to do. 

By chance there passed a farmer's boy, 
Whistling a tune in childish joy ; 
His frock was patched, his hat was old 
But his manly heart was very bold. 

"You, little chap, pick up my ball ;" 
His saucy lordship loud did call ; 
He thought it useless to be polite 
To one, whose clothes were in such a plight. 

" Do it yourself for want of me," 
Replied the boy quite manfully; 
Then quietly he passed along, 
Whistling aloud his favorite song. 

His little lordship furious grew, 
Eor he was proud and hasty too ; 
"I'll break your bones," he rudely cries, 
While fire {did) flash from both his eyes. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 87 

Now, heedless quite which way he took, 
He tumbled plump into the brook 
And, as he fell, he lost his bat 
And next he dropped his beaver hat. 

" Come help me out," enraged he cried 

But the sturdy farmer this replied, 
"Alter your tone my little man 

And then I'll help you all I can." 

" There are few things ; I would not dare 
For gentlemen, who speak me fair, 
But, for rude words, I do not choose 
To wet my feet and soil my shoes." 

" Please help me out," his lordship said, 
" I'm sorry I was so ill-bred ; " 
" 'Tis all forgot," replied the boy 
And gave his hand in honest joy. 

The offered hand his lordship took 
And soon came safely from the brook ; 
His looks were downcast and aside, 
For he felt ashamed of his silly pride* 

The farmer brought his ball and bat 
And wiped the wet from his dripping hat 
And mildly said, as he went away, 
" Remember the lesson you've learned to-day." 

" Be kind to all, you chance to meet 
In field or lane or crowded street ; 
Anger and pride are both unwise, 
Yinegar never catches flies." 

SECOND SELECTION. 

Looking to Jesus. 

! eyes, that are weary, and hearts, that are sore ; 
Look off unto Jesus and sorrow no more : 
The light of his countenance shineth so bright ; 
That here, as in heaven, there need be no night. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When looking to Jesus, I go not astray ; 
My eyes are upon him, he shows me the way : 
The path may seem dark, as he leads me along, 
But, following Jesus, I cannot go wrong. 

Still looking to Jesus, oh ! may I be found, 
When Jordan's dark waters encompass me round ; 
They'll bear me away in his presence to be 
And see Him still nearer, whom always I see. 

Then, then I shall know the full beauty and grace 
Of Jesus my Lord, when I stand face to face ; 
Shall know how his love went before me each day 
And wonder, that ever my eyes turned away. 

THIRD SELECTION. 

Redemption. 

He asked but all the heavenly choir stood mute 
And silence was in heaven. On man's behalf 
Patron or intercessor none appear'd ; 
Much less; that durst, upon his own head, draw 
The deadly forfeiture and ransom set. 
And now, without redemption, all mankind 
Must have been lost, adjudged to death and Hell 
By doom severe ; had not the Son of God, 
In whom the fulness dwells of love divine, 
His dearest mediation thus renew'd. 

" Father, thy word is pass'd, man shall find grace. 
And shall grace not find means ; that finds her way, 
The speediest of thy winged messengers, 
To visit all thy creatures and to all 
Comes unprevented, unimplored, unsought ? 
Happy for man, so coming ; he her aid 
Can never seek, once dead in sins and lost. 
Atonement for himself or offering meet, 
Indebted and undone, hath none to bring. 



WORD-ANALYSIS OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 89 

Behold me then, me for him ; life for life 

I offer : on me let thine anger fall : 

Account me man ; I, for his sake, will leave 

Thy bosom and this glory next to thee, 

Freely put off, and for him lastly die 

Well pleased. On me let Death wreak all his rage : 

Under his gloomy power I shall not long 

Lie vanquished ; thou hast given me to possess 

Life in myself forever, by thee I live. 

Though now to Death I yield and am his due, 

All that of me can die ; yet, that debt paid, 

Thou wilt not leave me in the loathsome grave 

His prey nor suffer my unspotted soul 

For ever, with corruption, there to dwell 

But I shall rise victorious and subdue 

My vanquisher, spoil' d of his vaunted spoil. 

Death his death's wound shall then receive and stoop 

Inglorious, of his mortal sting disarm'd. 

I, through the ample air in triumph high, 

Shall lead Hell captive, maugre Hell, and show 

The powers of darkness bound. Thou, at the sight 

Pleased, out of Heaven shall look down and smile ; 

While, by thee raised, I ruin all my foes 

Death last and with his carcass glut the grave. 

Then, with the multitude of my redeemed, 

Shall enter Heaven, long absent, and return, 

Father, to see thy face, wherein no cloud 

Of anger shall remain but peace assured 

And reconcilement: wrath shall be no more 

Thenceforth but in thy presence joy entire." 

—Paradise Lost, III, 21 7. 



PAET SECOND. 
PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AM) SYNTAX. 



FIRST AND SECOND DIVISIONS. 
LESSON I. 

General Definitions. — Parts of Speech. 

1. What is Etymology ? Etymology is that part of Gram- 
mar which treats of four things ; first, of the classification of 
words into parts of speech; second, of their accidence or 
properties ; third, of the derivation of words from other 
words in our own language by prefixes and suffixes ; fourth, 
of the derivation of words from other words in foreign lan- 
guages, 

2. What is a word? A word is a syllable or group of 
syllables used in forming sentences, 

3. What is a primitive word ? A primitive ivord is one 
not derived from any other. 

4. Illustrate. Eest, cost, fast, fame etc. Also sit, sing, 
run etc. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. What is a derivative word ? A derivative word is one 
formed from another or from others. 

7. Illustrate. Restless, accost, accosting, faster, fastest, 
defamer etc. Also return, report, reporter, comforting etc. 

8. Give other illustrations. 

9. What is a simple word? A simple word is one not 
united with any other, as hat, cap, boot etc. Also hit, sat, 
mat, pat, rat etc. 

10. What is a compound word? A compound word con- 
sists of two or more simple words written and used as one, 

11. How many kinds of compounds are there ? There are 
two kinds, permanent and temporary compounds. 

12. How is a permanent compound written ? It is con- 
solidated as one word and so written. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 91 

13. Illustrate. Gristmill, grindstone, waterwheel, wind- 
mill, whirlpool, watershed, millpond etc. 

14. Give other examples. 

15. How is a temporary compound written ? A tempo- 
rary compound has its parts joined by a hyphen. 

16. Illustrate. Slave-merchants, whiskey-dealer, election- 
riots etc. Also child-stealer, bear-hunter, turkey-trapper 
etc. 

17. Give other illustrations. 

1.8. What are parts of speech ? Parts of speech are the 
classes of words according to their use, 

19. Illustrate. The word man is used for a name and 
therefore is called a Noun. The word he is used to stand 
instead of a Noun and therefore is called a Pronoun. Also 
the word black is used to modify a noun and so is called an 
Adjective. 

20. Give other examples. 

21. How many parts of speech are there ? There are 
nine parts of speech. 

22. Name them. The Noun, the Pronoun, the Adjective, 
the Yerb, the Adverb, the Participle, the Preposition, the 
Conjunction and the Interjection. 

23. What is a Noun ? A Noun is the name of something. 

24. How many kinds of Nouns are there ? There are two 
hinds of Nouns, common and proper. 

25. What is a common Noun ? A common Noun is a 
general name designating any object in an entire class. 

26. Illustrate by examples. Book, bench, brother, sister. 
These are class words applying to the class and each indi- 
vidual in it. There is a large class of objects called brother 
and the name brother will designate each object in the class. 

27. Give other illustrations. 

28. What is a proper Noun ? A proper Noun is the name 
of a particular object not belonging to any class. 

29. Illustrate by examples. Matthew, Joseph, Richmond, 
Texas, Maine. 

30. Give other examples. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

31. What are objects ? Objects are fragments or parts of 
the outer world upon which our minds act in thought. 

32. What is meant by the internal or subjective world ? 
By this is meant the world of thought, feeling and volition 
within us. 

33. What is meant by the objective or ezfem^Zworld ? By 
this is meant the world of objects without us. 

34. How can the mind become acquainted with the outer 
world ? The mind acts upon and obtains a knowledge of the 
outer world through five avenues called senses. 

35. Name the jive senses. Seeing, Smelling, Feeling, 
Tasting and Hearing. 

. 36. Whence do we obtain our knowledge? We obtain 
our knowledge partly from without through the senses and 
partly from within by comparing our former ideas one with 
another. 

LESSON II. 

Substance, Qualities.— The Noun. 

1. What is a substance ? A substance is that in which 
qualities inhere or reside. 

2. Illustrate. We cannot know the substance of a stone 
except by and through its qualities. 

3. What are qualities? Qualities are those properties 
which inhere in a substance and by which alone we can 
"know the substance. 

4. Illustrate. We can only know the substance of a stone 
by its properties or qualities of hardness, roughness, heavi- 
ness, brittleness, roundness etc. 

5. Can the substance and its qualities be separated? 
The substance and its qualities cannot be actually separated. 

6. Illustrate. We cannot in a company of three distribute 
the sweetness of an apple to one, the roundness to another 
and the hardness or heaviness to another of the company. 

7. Can we think of the qualities separately from the sub- 
stance in which they inhere ? We can think of the qualities 
abstracted or drawn away from their substance. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 93 

8. Illustrate. We know what sweetness is and can think 
of it by itself and compare one degree of sweetness with 
another. 

9. What is an Abstract Noun ? An Abstract Noun is the 
name of a quality considered apart from the substance in 
which it inheres. 

10. Illustrate. An example would be sweetness or sour- 
ness considered apart from the apple in which it resides or 
inheres. 

11. Giye another illustration. 

12. What is a Concrete Noun ? A Concrete Noun is the 
name not of any quality but of a tangible substance. 

13. Illustrate. Apples, gas, air, fog, dew, stone, wood etc. 

14. Give other illustrations. 

15. What is a Collective Noun? A Collective Noun is one 
which expresses many in a group. 

16. What two significations can a Collective Noun have? 
A Collective Noun signifies either many as one whole or 
many as individuals. 

17. Illustrate. " The crowd rush" means that the crowd 
as individuals rush but " The crowd rushes " means that 
the crowd as one whole rushes. 

18. Give other illustrations. 

19. What are the accidence, qualities or properties of a 
Noun? The properties of a Noun are Person, Gender 
Number and Case. 

20. What is Person ? Person is the property of a noun 
which distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to and 
the person spoken of. 

21. How many Persons are there? There are three Per- 
sons, the First, the Second and the Third. 

22. What is the first Person ? The first Person signifies 
the speaker. 

23. Illustrate. I, Joseph of Eichmond. 

24. What is the Second Person ? The Second Person 
signifies the person spoken to. 

25. Illustrate. You, John of Boston. 



94: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

26. What is the Third Person ? The Third Person sig- 
nifies the person spoken of. 

27. Illustrate. Joseph, James, William, Samuel. 

LESSON III. 

The Noun Continued. — Gender, Person and Number. 

1. What is Gender? Gender is that property of a noun 
or pronoun which distinguishes the sexes of the objects 
named. 

2. How many Genders are there ? There are four Gen- 
ders; The Masculine, the Feminine, the Neuter and the 
Common. 

3. What is the Masculine Gender? The Masculine 
Gender signifies the name of a male. 

4. 'Illustrate. John, William, Samuel, Jacob, Karl. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. What is the Feminine Gender ? The Feminine Gender 
signifies the name of a female. 

7. Illustrate. Susan, Jane, pullet, hen, ewe, cow etc. 

8. Give other illustrations. 

9. What is the Neuter Gender ? The Neuter Gender sig- 
nifies that the object is neither male nor female. 

10. Illustrate. Bench, dish, stove, fender, tree etc. 

11. Give other illustrations. 

12. What is the Common Gender? The Common Gender 
signifies that the object is either male or female. 

13. Illustrate. Deer, sheep, fowls, turkey, chickens, 
birds, rabbits. 

14. Give other nouns of the Common Gender. 

15. Why are these said to be of the Common Gender ? 
Because these and all such nouns indifferently denote either 
males or females. 

16. In how many forms may the Masculine and Feminine 
Genders be expressed? The Masculine and Feminine 
Genders may be expressed in three forms. 

17. Give the first with examples. First by different 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 95 

words : as man, woman ; boy, girl ; goose, gander ; king, 
queen etc. 

18. Give the second with examples. Second, by different 
terminations: as hero, heroine; executor, executrix; heir, 
heiress; duke, duchess; actor, actress etc. 

19. Give the third with examples. Third, by using 
affixes; as he-goat, she-goat; mer-man, mer-maid; pea- 
cock, pea- hen ; man-servant, maid-servant etc. 

20. Eepeat all three with examples. 

21. What is Number? Number is that property of a 
noun or pronoun which shows whether it is the name of one 
object or more than one. 

22. How many numbers are there ? There are two num- 
bers, the singular and the plural. 

23. "What is the Singular Number? The Singular 
Number shows that the noun or pronoun means but one 
object. 

24. Give examples. Boy, road, bench, he, it, him etc. 

25. Give other examples. 

26. What is the Plural Number ? The Plural Number 
shows that the noun or pronoun means more than one. 

27. Illustrate. Men, trees, animals, armies, winds, 
friends, they, them, we etc. 

LESSON IV. 

The Noun Continued.— Rules for Plurals, Case. 

1. Give Rule the First. Foreign words are pluralized in 
English according to the rules of their own language. 

2. Illustrate. Calculus, calculi ; antithesis, antitheses etc. 

3. Give other examples. 

4. What is Rule the Second ? Proper nouns add s but 
common nouns change f or fe into ves and y after a conso- 
nant into ies to form the plural. 

5. Illustrate. Livy, Livys; Pompey, Pompeys etc. Fly, 
flies ; tory, tories ; leaf, leaves etc. 

6. Give other examples. 



96 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

7. What is the Third Eule for plurals ? When the last 
sound of a noun will unite with the sound of s, it forms its 
plural by adding s to the singular. 

8. Illustrate this. Desk, plural desks; chair, plural 
chairs ; top, plural tops. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. What is Eule the Fourth? The plurals of marks, 
figures and other characters are formed by adding the apos- 
trophe and s. 

11. Illustrate. Prove the problem by the 9's and ll's. 
Look for the *'s (asterisks) and the §'s (sections). Mind 
your , ? s, ;'s, .'s etc. Be on your p's and q's. 

12. Give other illustrations. 

13. Give Rule the Fifth. In compound words and words 
with descriptive titles, the part described by the other is plur- 
alized. 

14. Illustrate. The Miss Bells, the two Dr. Johnsons, 
courts-martial, brothers-in-law. 

15. Give other illustrations. 

16. What is the Sixth Rule? When the last sound of a 
noun will not unite with the sound of s, it forms its plural 
by adding es to the singular. 

17. Illustrate this. Bench, plural benches ; box, plural 
boxes ; peach, plural peaches. 

18. Give other examples. 

19. What is Rule the Seventh ? Nouns ending in o add 
es, if the o is preceded by a consonant, but s, if o is preceded 
by a vowel. 

20. Illustrate. Sin. cargo, plu. cargoes; sin. bravado, 
plu. bravadoes; but sin. folio, plu. folios; bamboo, bam- 
boos ; cuckoo, cuckoos ; embryo, embryos etc. 

21. Give other examples. 

22. What is Case ? Case is the condition of nouns and 
pronouns as to government showing whether they govern, 
are governed or are free from government. 

23. How many Cases are there ? There are four Cases. 

24. Name them. The Nominative Case, the Possessive 
Case, the Objective Case and the Absolute Case. 



PARSING OE ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 97 

25. What is the Nominative Case ? The Nominative Case 
is the condition of a noun or pronoun as Subject or Predi- 
cate of a proposition. 

26. Illustrate. In the sentence " John runs," John is in 
the Nominative Case, because it is the condition of a noun 
as subject of a proposition. 

27. Give other illustrations. 

28. What is the Possessive Case? The Possessive Case is 
the condition of a noun or pronoun as the possessor or 
owner. 

29. Illustrate. In the expression " John's hat " John's 
is in the possessive case, because it is the condition of a noun 
as possessor or owner. 

30. Give other examples. 

31. What is the Objective Case? The Objective Case is 
the condition of a noun or pronoun as object of a verb, a 
participle or a preposition. 

32. Illustrate. In the sentence " John killed the lion," 
lion is in the Objective Case, because it is the object of a 
transitive verb. 

33. Give other examples. 

LESSON V. 

The Noun Continued.— Case and Declension. 

1, What is the Absolute Case ? The Absolute Case is the 
condition of a noun or pronoun as having no relation to the 
verb or predicate of the sentence. 

2. Illustrate. In the sentence " John, study your lesson," 
John is in the Absolute Case, because it has no relation to 
the verb or predicate. Also in the sentence " James, what is 
your occupation ? " "James " is in the Absolute Case, because 
it has no relation to the verb or predicate. 

3. Give other examples. 

4, Is there any separate form for the Absolute Case? 
There is no separate form for the Case Absolute, it is usually 
of the same form as the Nominative. 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Is it true that the Absolute Case has no relation to any 
of the words or elements of a sentence ? This is not true. 
In the sentence Boy, come here, " hoy " has the relation of 
government over the subject thou understood, because it 
determines or controls three of its properties Gender, person 
and number. 

6. In what case are the headings of chapters, the super- 
scription of a letter etc., as Caesar's Commentaries on the 
Gallic War, John Brown, Kichmond Va. ? These are in 
the absolute case. 

7. Give other examples. 

8. How is the Possessive Case singular formed? The 
Possessive Case singular is formed by annexing the apos- 
trophe and the letter s to the Nominative. 

9. Illustrate by examples. Man, pos. Man's ; J ohn, pos. 
John's ; William, pos. William's ; dog, pos. dog's etc. 

10. Give other examples. 

11. How is the Possessive Case plural formed? The 
Possessive Case plural is formed by annexing the apostrophe 
alone, when the noun ends in s but, when the noun does not 
end in ,<?, it is formed by adding the apostrophe and letter s 
as in the singular. 

12. Illustrate this by examples. Hats' crowns, Dogs' 
ears, Horses' manes, Men's hats, Sheep's beds, Women's 
needles etc. 

13. Give other examples. 

14. What is Declension ? The Declension of a noun or 
pronoun is its change of form to show its different cases 
and numbers. 

15. Decline merchant. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Merchant Nom. Merchants 

Poss. Merchant's Poss. Merchants' 

01 y. Merchant 01 y. Merchants. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

16. Decline stranger. 

w. Plural. 



Nom. Stranger Nom. Strangers 

Poss. Stranger's Poss. Strangers' 

Obj. Stranger Obj. Stranger. 

17. Decline ox. 

Singular, Plural, 

Norn. Ox Nom. Oxen 

Poss. Ox's Poss. Oxen's 

Obj. Ox Obj. Oxen. 

18. Give and Decline six others. 

19. What is the Etymology of the word noun? The 
word noun comes from the Latin nomen, which means a 
name. 

20. How has nomen been changed into noun ? By usage. 
First m was left out making no'en then e was changed into 
u making noun, 

LESSON VI. 

The Noun Continued. — Declension (Continued). 

Here decline these nouns. 

Eock, sack, dock, mouse, horse, tree, newspaper, inkstand, 
book, apple, paper, pencil, penholder, cart, wagon, carriage. 

Eoadside, lily, bell, hat, rat, creek, river, hill, mill, rail- 
road, millstone, gun, bullet, powder, cup, coat, vest, waist, 
heel, sole, supper, gunboat etc. 

LESSON VII. 

The Noun Continued. — Declension (Continued). 

Give and Decline twenty nouns not mentioned in the 
above list. 



100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE PKONOUN. 
LESSON VIII. 



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PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 101 

LESSON IX. 

The Pronoun Continued. — Diagram (Continued). 

1. What is the Diagram of Pronouns ? The Diagram of 
Pronouns is a graphic view of their different classes. 

2. What is a Pronoun ? A Pronoun is a word used to 
stand instead of a noun. 

3. What does the word mean? Pronoun, from pro for or 
instead of and nomen a name, means a word which stands 
instead of a noun. 

4. Illustrate. Charles went to college and, when he was 
examined, he was found proficient in his preparatory studies. 
John spoke to William and commanded him to get his 
lesson. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. What is the Antecedent or Subsequent of a pronoun ? 
The Antecedent or Subsequent of a pronoun is the noun 
instead of which the pronoun stands. 

7. What is the meaning of Antecedent? Antecedent, 
from ante before and cedo I go, means in English a word 
going before. 

8. What does Subsequent mean ? Subsequent, from sub 
under or after and sequor I follow, means a word following 
after. 

9. Why do pronouns have Antecedents and Subsequents ? 
They would not be pronouns, if they did not stand instead 
of nouns; so they have Antecedents or Subsequents for the 
same reason that they are pronouns. 

10. How many classes of pronouns are there ? There are 
three classes of pronouns ; Personal, Adjective and Kelative 
or Connective. 

11. Which stand first in the Diagram ? The Personals 
stand first. 

12. What are Personal Pronouns? Personal Pronouns 
are those, which have a separate form for each of the three 
persons. 

13. Do Personals have antecedents? The nouns for 



102 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



which they stand are their antecedents ; with which they 
must agree in gender, person and number. 

14. How many kinds of Personals are there ? There are 
two kinds of Personals, the Simple and the Compound. 

15. Which are the Simple Personals ? The Simple Per- 
sonals are I, Thou, You, He, She and It. 

16. Are all pronouns Eelatives? All pronouns relate to 
an antecedent or a subsequent and, when the same words do 
not relate, they are not pronouns. 



LESSON X. 

The Pronoun Continued. — Declension of Personals. 
1. Decline I. 



Singular. 
Norn. I 

Poss. My or mine 
Obj. Me 

2. Decline Thou. 

Singular. 
Nom. Thou 
Poss. Thy or thine 
Obj. Thee 

3. Decline You. 

Singular. 
Nom. You 

Poss. Your or Yours 
Obj. You 

4. Decline He. 
ar. 



Nom. He 
Poss. His 
Obj. Him 



Plural. 
Nom. We 
Poss. Our or ours 
Obj. Us. 



Plural. 
Nom. Ye 

Poss. Your or yours 
Obj. You. 

Plural. 
Nom. You 

Poss. Your or Yours 
Obj. You. 



Plural. 
Nom. They 
Poss. Their or theirs 
Obj. Them. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 103 



5. Decline She. 






Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom. She 




Nom. They 


Poss. Her or 


tiers 


Poss. Their or theirs 


Olj. Her 




Olj. Them. 


6. Decline It. 






Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom. It 




Nom. They 


Poss. Its 




Poss. Their or theirs 


Olj. It 




Olj. Them. 


7. Eepeat these i 


until mastered. 






LESSON XI. 



The Pronoun Continued. — Personals (Continued). — 
Adjectives. 

1. What are the so-called possessive pronouns? The 
possessive pronouns are the possessive cases of the Personals. 

2. Illustrate. Go saddle that horse of mine. 

3. "What do some say about the pronoun mine in this 
situation ? Some authors think the pronoun in this situa- 
tion cannot be parsed as the possessive case of the Personal 
pronoun and they make a class called Possessive Pronouns 
for its sake alone. 

4. In this situation how is mine parsed ? Mine is parsed in 
this situation as a Personal pronoun in the possessive case 
limiting horses understood. 

5. Write the sentence in full supplying the ellipsis. Go 
saddle that horse of mine horses. 

6. Give another sentence which will prove this. Go 
saddle that horse of John's. 

7. Now place them side by side. 

Go saddle that horse of mine. 
Go saddle that horse of John's. 

8. What do these possessive cases mine and John's limit? 
They limit horses understood. 



104 ENGLISH GBAMMAE. 

9. Write them out in full. 

Go saddle that horse of my horses. 
Go saddle that horse of John's horses. 

10. Explain these sentences further. That horse is not a 
sufficient description but the speaker wishes to point out 
from what herd or lot of horses he is to be taken and adds 
of mine or John's. 

11. What are Compound Personal pronouns ? To form 
Compound Personal pronouns annex self or selves to a sim- 
ple personal. 

12. Illustrate. Add selves to them and you have them- 
selves. Also annex self to him and you have himself etc. 

13. Give other illustrations. 

14. Which are the Compound Personal pronouns ? They 
are Myself, Yourself, Himself, Themselves, Herself, Itself, 
Thyself etc. 

15. To which form of he, she and it, do we add self or 
selves? Self or selves is added not to the Nominative or 
Possessive but to the Objective cases of these pronouns. 

16. Illustrate. Not his-self but himself, not its-self but 
it-self, not their-selves but themselves. 

17. Why is etc. placed after the column of Compound 
Personals? Because this list does not exhaust them. 
There may be more Compound Personals. 

18. Which class comes second in the Diagram ? The 
Adjective pronoun comes second. 

19. What is the difference between Adjective Pronouns, 
and Pronominal Adjectives ? Adjective Pronouns are pro- 
nouns capable of being used adjectively or as adjectives and 
Pronominal Adjectives are adjectives capable of being used 
pronominally or as pronouns. 

20. Where are adjective pronouns treated ? Adjective 
Pronouns are treated under the head of pronouns. 

21. Where are Pronominal Adjectives treated ? Pronom- 
inal Adjectives are treated under the head of Adjectives. 

22. Do these two classes contain the same words ? In a 
great measure they do contain the same words. 



PAUSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 105 

23. What then are Adjective Pronouns? Adjective Pro- 
nouns are those Designative Adjectives which represent 
nouns. 

24. Illustrate. In the sentence "He took that which I 
gave him," "that" is an Adjective Pronoun, because it is 
one of those Designative Adjectives which represent a noun 
" Thing " understood which is its antecedent. 

25. Give other illustrations. 

LESSON XII. 

The Pronoun" Continued. — Adjectives (Continued). 

1. How many kinds of Adjective Pronouns are there? 
There are three kinds ; Demonstrative, Indefinite and Dis- 
tributive. 

2. What are Demonstratives? Demonstrative Adjective 
Pronouns represent their antecedents with precision. 

3. Illustrate. John bought a black and a white horse; 
this for two hundred dollars, that for three. 

4. Illustrate again. James bought an apple and a peach, 
the former for one cent and the latter for two. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. Give the list. This, That, These, Those, Former, 
Latter, Yon, Yonder, Both, Same etc. 

7. What is the difference between this and its plural these 
and that and its plural those ? The former represent their 
antecedents as objects near at hand and the latter represent 
them as objects more remote. 

. 8. What are Indefinite Adjective Pronouns ? Indefinite 
Adjective Pronouns represent their antecedents loosely. 

9. Illustrate. James wishes to buy horses; some for 
the saddle, others for draught. James and Joseph helped one 
another. 

10. Give other examples. 

11. Which are the Indefinites ? Some, Other, Any, One, 
All, Such, None, Divers, Enough, Another, Each, Other 
etc. are the indefinites. 



106 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

12. What are Distributives? Distributive Adjective Pro- 
nouns represent their antecedents as taken separately. 

13. Illustrate. Twelve men were sent out and each 
returned with a prisoner. 

14. Give other illustrations. 

15. Which are the Distributives? Each, Either and 
Neither are the Distributives. 

16. Why is every not in this list? Because every never 
represents a noun understood. You cannot say " Ten men 
passed the boots and every took a pair," because "every" does 
not represent a noun understood. 

17. Are these words oftener Adjective Pronouns or Pro- 
nominal Adjectives ? These words each, either and neither 
are oftener Pronominal Adjectives. 

18. When are these words really pronouns ? These words 
are pronouns only when they actually represent an antece- 
dent or a subsequent. 

19. Illustrate. John bought a large horse and a small 
one, this black and that white. Jonathan and David were 
friends and each loved the other. 

20. When are each, either and neither Adjectives ? 
These words are Adjectives, when they modify a noun 
either expressed or understood. 

21. Illustrate. I took that thing which you left. Either 
apple is ripe enough. That man is white. This boy is 
black. Either horse will answer. 

22. Give other illustrations. 

23. Decline Other. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Other Nom. Others 

Poss. Other's Poss. Other's 

Obj. Other Obj. Others. 

24. Decline Several. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. {Wanting) Nom. Several 

Poss. {Wanting) Poss. {Wanting) 

Obj. {Wanting) Obj. Several. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 107 

25. Decline One. 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. One Norn. {Wanting) 

Poss. One's Poss. (Wanting) 

Obj. One Obj. (Wanting). 

26. Are all the Adjective Pronouns declinable ? We can 
decline all the Adjective Pronouns by leaving some of their 
parts wanting; in some the Possessives, in some the Singu- 
lars and in some the Plurals. But declension in language 
should not be increased. 

27. Decline Others. 

LESSON XIII. 

The Pronoun Continued.— Connectives 
or Relatives. 

1. Which class comes third in the Diagram ? Relatives 
or Connectives are third and last. 

2. What are Connective or Kelative Pronouns? Con- 
nective Pronouns are those, which are always found in a dif- 
ferent clause or sentence from that which contains their 
antecedents and generally serve as connectives to join their 
own clause with that of the antecedent. 

3. Illustrate. We love those who love us. Whatever is 
valuable is much esteemed. Who comes there ? A friend. 

4. How many kinds of Connective Pronouns are there ? 
There are three kinds of Connective Pronouns ; the Simple, 
the Compound and the Interrogative. 

5. What are Simple Connective Pronouns ? Simple Con- 
nective Pronouns are such as do not contain their ante- 
cedent, but refer to one outside of themselves. 

6. Illustrate. The general, who conquered Gaul, was 
Caesar. 

7. Which are the Simple Connectives ? The Simple Con- 
nectives are Who, Which, That and As. 

8. What is peculiar about As ? As is a relative only after 
such, many and same. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. Decline Who. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Who Nom. Who 

Poss. Whose Poss. Whose 

Obj. Whom Obj. Whom. 

10. Decline Which. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Which Nom. Which 

Poss. Whose Poss. Whose 

Obj. Which Obj. Which. 

11. When do the Connectives which, what and that be- 
come adjectives ? Wliich, ivhat and that become adjectives 
when they are placed before nouns to modify them. 

12. I told him which horse to take. I directed him to 
take that horse. 

LESSON XIV. 

The Pronoun Continued. — Connectives 
(Continued). 

1. What are Compound Connective Pronouns ? Com- 
pound Connective Pronouns are those which include in 
themselves both the antecedent and the relative, and are 
equivalent to that which, or the thing which or he who. 

2. Illustrate. "He took what I gave him" is equal to "He 
took that which I gave him," or "He took the thing which I 
gave him." 

3. Illustrate again. " Whoso liveth sinneth," is equivalent 
to " He, tvho liveth, sinneth." Also " What is right I will do " 
is equivalent to u That ivhich is right I will do." 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. How are the Compound Connectives formed ? The 
Compound Connectives with the exception of what are 
formed by annexing ever, so or soever to the simple relatives 
or connectives. 

6. G-ive the three founded on who. Whoever, whoso and 
whosoever. 

7. Give the three founded on which. Whichever, whichso 
and whichsoever. 



PASSING OB ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 109 

8. Give the three founded on what. Whatever, whatso and 
whatsoever. 

9. Count and name the Compound Connective Pronouns. 
These pronouns are ten in number; whoever, whoso and 
whosoever ; whichever, whichso and whichsoever ; whatever, 
whatso and whatsoever ; what. 

10. Which of these are equal to he who ? All those com- 
pounds founded on who are equivalent to he who, any who or 
any one who. 

11. Which of them are equivalent to that which or the 
thing which? What and all the compounds founded on 
which and what are equivalent to that which or the thing 
which. 

12. What makes these words compound? Not the suf- 
fixes, which merely change their form, but their significa- 
tion makes them compound. 

13. How are the Compound Connective Pronouns to be 
parsed ? We can either separate them into their equivalents 
and parse these or we can parse the pronoun itself twice, 
first as an antecedent and second as a relative, 

14. Illustrate. In the sentence "Whoever lives, sins"; 
either separate "whoever" into its equivalents he who and 
parse these separately or parse " whoever " first as a pronoun 
the subject of sins and afterwards again as a pronoun the 
subject of lives. 

15. Do these words ever become adjectives ? Sometimes 
one part of the compound is an adjective. 

16. Illustrate. Bring whichever horse you can catch. 

17. Which part of whichever is the adjective here ? The 
antecedent part and it modifies " horse." The pronominal 
part is the object of catch and relates to " horse." 

18. What are interrogative pronouns? Interrogative 
pronouns are such as relate forward to a subsequent, intro- 
duce questions and stand in a different sentence from their 
subsequents. 

19. What is the chief difference between these and other 
pronouns ? The others relate backward to antecedents but 
these relate forward to subsequents. 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

20. What is the subsequent of an interrogative? The 
subsequent of an interrogative connective pronoun is that 
noun in the answer, which the pronoun represents. 

21. Illustrate. Who is the president of the United States ? 
Mr. Harrison. 

22. Why does the interrogative always stand in a different 
sentence from its subsequent ? Because the question always 
forms one sentence and the answer another. 

23. Why is this ? Because the question is always spoken 
by one person and the answer by another. 

24. Illustrate this. 

LESSON XV. 

The Pronoun" Continued. — Connectives Continued.— 
Questions. 

1. How many kinds of questions are there? There are 
two kinds of questions, direct and indirect. 

2. What is a direct question ? A direct question is one 
propounded directly to some person. 

3. Illustrate. Who comes there? What day is this? 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. What is an indirect question ? An indirect question is 
one propounded indirectly in a Subordinate Clause. 

6. Illustrate. The sentinel inquired who came there. 
The clerk asks what day this is. 

7. Give other illustrations. 

8. What do interrogatives always require in direct ques- 
tions ? They require interrogation points in direct questions. 

9. When are which and what interrogative adjectives? 
When, in questions, they stand before nouns to limit them. 

10. When are these pronouns Connectives ? These pro- 
nouns are Connectives when they introduce indirect ques- 
tions. 

11. How is the pronoun You used ? You is used for both 
singular and plural nouns. 

12. Illustrate. Father, are you ready? Friends, are you 
all well ? 

13. Give other examples. 



PASSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. Ill 

14 How is the pronoun It sometimes used ? The pro- 
noun It is sometimes used as the subject of impersonal verbs, 
relating to an indefinite antecedent understood. 

15. Illustrate. It rains. It snows. It is warm. 

16. Give other illustrations. 

17. How is the pronoun We sometimes used? We in 
editorials and some other writings is used for I. 

18. Illustrate. We were the author of that article ; We, 
Henry VIII, by the Grace of God, king etc. 

19. Give other illustrations. 

20. In what order should pronouns of different persons 
stand in English? The second person should precede the 
third and the third the first. 

21. Illustrate. Shall you, he and I go to town ? 

22. Give other illustrations. 

23. What are each other and one another ? These words 
are indefinite adjective pronouns. 

24. To what is each other equivalent ? For example, " They 
helped each other " is equivalent to " They helped each the 
other " or " They each helped the other" 

25. To what is one another equivalent ? In the example 
" They helped one another" these words are equivalent to 
" They helped one the other " or " One helped another." 

26. How in these sentences are each and one parsed? 
Each and one are parsed as appositives to the subjects of their 
sentences and another is parsed as a pronoun representing 
the subject and in the objective case. 

LESSON XVI. 

The Peonoun Continued. 

1. "What are personals? 

2. Give the simple personals. 

3. Give the compound personals. 

4. What are adjective pronouns? 

5. Give the indefinites. 

6. Give the distributives. 

7. Give the demonstratives. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. What are connectives or relatives ? 

9. Give the simple connectives. 

10. Give the compound connectives. 

11. Give the interrogative connectives. 

12. Give the definitions of indefinites, distributives and 
demonstratives. 

LESSON XVII. 

The Pronoun Continued. 
Eepeat the Diagram of pronouns. 

LESSON XVIII. 

The Pronoun Continued. 
Eepeat the Diagram of pronouns throughout. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

LESSON XIX. 

Limiting Power.— Classes.-— Comparison. 

1. What is an adjective ? An adjective, from the words 
ad to and jacio / cast, is a word attached to a noun to limit 
its meaning. 

2. Illustrate. In the sentence " Wise men are praised," 
"men" without "wise" would be a very general term, 
embracing all the human race, but the word " wise " limits 
it down from the entire race to a particular class. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. Is the limiting of one word's meaning by another word 
or element a fiction of Grammarians to please children? 
This is not a fiction but a reality and lies at the foundation 
of language. 

5. Illustrate. In the sentence " The walnut tree shows 
the spot," if the speaker had, before an audience of a 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 113 

thousand, left out the word " toalnut f there would have 
been as many different ideas as to the kind of " tree " as 
there were men in the company, because the term tree is 
general and unlimited but, as soon as the word "walnut" is 
put in, the same idea flashes into each one's mind and the 
meaning of the word "tree" has been limited from a 
thousand or more kinds, which it might have been, to one 
kind which it really is. 

6. Give and explain two other illustrations. 

7. How many kinds of adjectives are there ? There are 
two kinds of adjectives, the Descriptive and the Designative. 

8. What is a Descriptive Adjective ? A Descriptive Ad- 
jective is one that limits a noun's meaning by expressing its 
qualities and thereby describing or defining it. 

9. What is a Designative Adjective? A Designative 
Adjective is one that limits a noun's meaning by simply 
pointing it out and designating it. 

10. Illustrate. In the expression " white horse " " white" 
is a descriptive adjective, because it expresses one of the 
qualities of the noun " horse " and so describes it. 

11. What quality of "horse" does "white" express? 
" White " expresses the quality of whiteness. 

12. Illustrate Designative Adjectives. In the expression 
" That man " that is a Designative Adjective because it 
limits the meaning of the noun " man " not by expressing 
any of its qualities but by simply pointing it out and desig- 
nating it. 

13. What is the difference between the adjectives " white" 
and " that " in the expressions " that horse " and " white 
horse " ? While " white " and " that " both limit or reduce 
their nouns from a general to a particular meaning, the 
former does so by describing whereas the latter does so by 
merely designating it. 

14. Illustrate again. In the expression " Green tree by 
the spring" "green" and "by the spring" both limit 
" tree " because they reduce it from a general to a particular 
meaning, but the former limits by describing and the latter 
by merely designating the object. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

15. Give other illustrations of both classes of adjectives. 

16. What is a proper adjective? A proper adjective is 
one derived from a proper noun. 

17. Illustrate it. The adjectives "American and Euro- 
pean," derived from the nouns America and. Europe, are 
proper adjectives. 

18. Give other illustrations. 

19. What is comparison of adjectives? Comparison of 
adjectives is their change of form to express higher or lower 
degrees of the quality. 

20. How many degrees of comparison are there ? There 
are three degrees of comparison; the Positive, the Com- 
parative and the Superlative. 

21. What is the positive degree ? The positive degree 
merely expresses the quality. 

22. Illustrate. In the expression "honest men," the 
adjective "honest" is in the positive degree, because it 
merely expresses the quality of honesty. 

23. Give other illustrations. 

24. What is the comparative degree ? The comparative 
degree expresses a higher or lower degree of the quality, 
when there are only two objects compared in the class. 

25. Illustrate. More honest men. Less honest men. 
Better weather. Worse weather. 

26. Give other illustrations. 

27. What is the superlative degree? The superlative 
degree expresses the highest or lowest degree of the quality 
when several objects are compared in the class. 

28. Illustrate. The most honest men. The least honest 
men. The best weather. The worst weather. 

29. Give other illustrations. 

30. What popular error is to be avoided ? It is consid- 
ered wrong to say " The weakest man" when only two are 
meant, thus using the superlative for the comparison of 
two objects. 

31. Upon what ground is this sometimes justified? 
Some scholars say this is right, because it means the weakest 



PASSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 115 

in the class of objects without reference to the number of 
objects in the class, 

32. Illustrate. The weakest of the horses, The ablest of 
the orators mean the weakest and the ablest of the class of 
objects without determining the number of objects in the 
class. 

LESSON XX. 

The Adjective Continued.— Comparison.— Descrip- 
tives and designatives. 

1. How are the comparative and superlative degrees of 
monosyllables formed? The comparative and superlative 
of monosyllables are regularly formed in ascending compar- 
ison by adding r or er and st or est to the positive. 

2. Illustrate by the following comparisons. 

Pos. Black, Comp. Blacker, Sup. Blackest. 

" White, " Whiter, " Whitest. 

" Eed, " Kedder, " Keddest. 

" Green, " Greener, " Greenest. 

" Blue, " Bluer, " Bluest. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. How are the comparative and superlative of polysyl- 
lables regularly formed ? The comparative and superlative 
of polysyllables are regularly formed in ascending compar- 
ison by prefixing more and most to the positive. 

5. Illustrate this. 

Pos. Beautiful, Gomp. More beautiful, Sup. Most beautiful. 
" Faithful, " More faithful, " Most faithful. 
" Scornful, " More scornful, " Most scornful. 
" Capable, " More capable, " Most capable. 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. How do adjectives form their degrees in descending 
comparison ? In descending comparison, adjectives whether 
monosyllables or polysyllables, form their comparatives and 
superlatives by prefixing less and least to the positive. 



116 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

8. Illustrate this. 

Pos. Beautiful, Comp. Less beautiful, Sup. Least beautiful. 
" Grateful, " Less grateful, " Least grateful. 
" Peaceful, " Less peaceful, " Least peaceful. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. How are other adjectives compared? Some adjec- 
tives are compared irregularly. 

11. Illustrate this. 



Pos. Little, 


Comp. Less, 


Sup. Least. 


" Much, 


" More, 


" Most. 


" Good, 


Better, 


" Best. 


" Bad, 


" Worse, 


" Worst. 



12. Give other illustrations. 

13. Give a comprehensive rule for comparing adjectives. 
In ascending comparison, monosyllabic adjectives are com- 
pared by adding r or er and st or est and polysyllabic adjec- 
tives by prefixing more and most to the positive but, in 
descending comparison, all adjectives, whether monosyllabic 
or polysyllabic, are compared by prefixing less and least to 
the positive. Some are compared irregularly and some do 
not admit of comparison. 

14. What class of words in all languages are irregular ? 
The words in most common use are, in all languages, irregular. 

15. Why is this ? The words in most common use are 
most apt to be abbreviated and altered for convenience of use. 

16. Can all adjectives be compared? All adjectives 
cannot be compared. 

17. Illustrate. Bound, square etc. cannot be compared, 
because there are no different degrees of roundness, square- 
ness etc. 

18. Give other illustrations. 

19. What is a Designative Adjective ? A Designative Ad- 
jective is one that limits a noun's meaning by simply point- 
ing out or designating it. 

20. Illustrate. In the expressions " white flowers," 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 117 

" green leaves " etc., these adjectives ascribe to their bases 
the qualities of whiteness, greenness etc. but in the expres- 
sions "these flowers," "yon leaves" etc., these adjectives 
express no qualities but simply ascertain, point out and 
designate their bases. 

21. Give other illustrations. 

22. How many kinds of Designative Adjectives are there ? 
There are six kinds of Designative Adjectives; the Demon- 
stratives, the Indefinites, the Distributives, the Article, the 
Numerals and the Adjective Element. 

23. What are the first three of these called ? They are 
called pronominal adjectives, because they are often used 
as pronouns. 

24. What are demonstrative adjectives ? Demonstrative 
adjectives are such Designatives as point out with emphasis 
the objects or bases which they limit. 

25. Give some of them. This, that, these, those, same, 
both, yon, yonder, former, latter etc. 

26. What are distributive adjectives? The distribu- 
tive adjectives are such Designatives as express the separa- 
tion of the objects which they limit. 

27. Give them. Every, each, either, neither. 

28. What are indefinites ? Indefinites are those Desig- 
natives which point out carelessly the objects which they 
limit. 

29. Give them. Some, other, such, none, divers, enough, 
no, little, few, many, sundry, any, eachother, on ean other, 
one etc. 

LESSON XXI. 

The Adjective Continued. — Designatives. — 

The and A or An.— Numerals. 

1. What is the article ? The Designatives a or an and the 
are called articles. 

2. Illustrate. A horse. An apple. The garden. The 
sheep. The wolf. 

3. Give other illustrations. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. What is the indefinite article ? A or an is the Indefi- 
nite Article, because it limits in an indefinite manner. 

5. Illustrate. A mule. A rabbit. An ox. An apple. 
An earthquake. 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. What is the definite article ? The is called the defi- 
nite article, because it limits definitely. 

8. Illustrate. The wagon. The wolf. The whirlwind. 
The wheelbarrow. 

9.' Give other illustrations. 

10. When should the articles be used ? A is used before 
words commencing with a consonant sound, an before words 
commencing with a vowel sound and the before both. 

11. Illustrate. The wolf. The wolves. A wolf. An 
apple. A bucket etc. 

12. Give other illustrations. 

13. What are numeral adjectives? Numeral Designa- 
tives denote number and run from one upwards in an indefi- 
nite series. 

14. Illustrate. Two horses. Five men. The tenth 
legion etc. 

15. Give other illustrations. 

16. How many kinds of numerals are there ? There are 
three kinds of numeral adjectives ; Cardinal, Ordinal and 
Multiplicative. 

17. What are cardinal numerals ? Cardinal numerals are 
those Designatives which denote number simply. 

18. Illustrate. One, two, three, four, five, six, seven etc. 
Ten legions, eight teeth etc. 

19. Give other examples. 

20. What are ordinal numerals ? Ordinal numerals are 
those Designatives which denote the place an object occupies 
in a series. 

21. Illustrate. First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, 
seventh etc. 

22. Give other examples. 

23. What are multiplicatives ? Multiplicative numerals 
are such Designatives as denote how many fold. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 119 

24. Illustrate. Single or lone, double or twofold, triple 
or threefold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, 
sextuple or sixfold etc. A quintuple rank. A twofold 
object. Tenfold strength. 

25. Give other illustrations. 

26. What is the adjective element? The Designative 
adjective element is any other word or group of words used 
like an adjective to limit a noun's meaning by simply point- 
ing it out. 

27. How many kinds are there and where are they 
treated ? There are of these adjective elements five kinds. 

28. Give the first. The Noun ; as kitchen clock, dining- 
room servant etc. 

29. Give the second. The Possessives ; as Solomon's 
temple, John's book etc. 

30. Give the third. The appositives ; as John the Hack- 
smith ; Cicero the orator etc. 

31. Give the fourth. The Phrase; as men of Boston, 
books to read etc. 

32. Give the fifth. The Clause; as men, ivho live on 
the coast, are fond of fishing. 

33. Where are these elements treated ? These elements 
are treated in syntax. 

34. Can Designatives be compared ? Designatives gener- 
ally do not admit of comparison. 

35. Why are they not compared ? Designative adjectives 
do not express qualities and hence could not express differ- 
ent degrees of any qualities. 

36. Illustrate. If objects are six or sixth or sextuple or 
sixfold they cannot be more or less so. 

37. Give other illustrations. 

38. Are th N e rules of comparison closely followed ? The 
best authors follow them, but many of the older authors 
violate them frequently. 

39. How should " The most benevolent, wise and good 
man" be corrected? This sentence should be written, 
"The best, wisest and most benevolent man," placing the 
longest next to the noun. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

40. Are these rules important ? English is rendered very 
inelegant by their violation. 

LESSON XXII. 

The Adjective Continued. — Examples for Comparison. 

Compare these, both by ascending and descending 
comparison. Beautiful, white, black, yellow, green, red, 
compound, benevolent, blue, brown, faded, hollow, hot, 
little, good, bad, flowing, mad, circumspect, refreshing, 
revolting, insignificant, tall, round, educated, unlearned, 
constrained, unconstrained. 

LESSON XXIII. 

The Adjective Continued.— Exercises in Comparison. 
Give and compare twenty adjectives, not given in the list 
of the previous lesson, both in ascending and descending 
comparison. 

THE VEEB. 
LESSON XXIV. 

Properties in General. 

1. What is a verb ? A verb is a word which expresses 
action, being or state, 

2. What is the etymology of the word verb ? The word 
verb is derived from the Latin verbnm meaning the word. 

3. Why was the Action word called verlum in Latin? 
Because this was considered the word, or the most important 
word in the sentence. 

4. Into how many classes are verbs divided according to 
meaning ? According to meaning verbs are of two classes, 
Transitive and Intransitive. 

5. What is a transitive verb ? A transitive verb requires 
an object to complete its meaning. 



PAESING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 121 

6. What is an intransitive verb ? An intransitive verb 
is one, whose meaning is complete without an object. 

7. Illustrate the transitive verb ? David hilled the lion. 
Susan Wees tea. 

8. Give other illustrations. 

9. Illustrate the intransitive verb. John will ride to 
town. Joseph seems better. William is sick. The heir 
will soon be king. 

10. Give other illustrations. 

11. How are verbs classed according to form ? According 
to form verbs are of four classes, Regular, Irregular, Re- 
dundant and Defective. 

12. What is a regular verb? A regular verb is one, 
which forms its past tense and past participle by adding d 
or ed to the present indicative. 

13. Illustrate. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle 


Love, 


loved, 


loved. 


Coin, 


coined, 


coined. 


Bore, 


bored, 


bored. 


Kill, 


killed, 


killed. 


Rob, 


robbed, 


robbed. 



14. Give other illustrations. 

15. What is an irregular verb? An irregular verb is 
one, which does not form its past tense and past participle 
by adding d or ed to the present indicative. 

16. Illustrate. 

Present. Past. Past Participle. 

Bite, bit, bitten or bit. 

Hide, hid, hidden or hid. 

Ride, rode, ridden or rode. 

Out, cut, cut. 

17. Give other illustrations. 

18. What is a defective verb ? A defective verb is one, 
which wants some of its principal parts. 

19. Illustrate. • Beware, ought, quoth, wit, wot, wis, wert, 
wist, wote. 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

20. Give other illustrations. 

21. What are redundant verbs? Redundant verbs are 
those, which have more than one form for the past indicative 
and perfect participle. 

22. Illustrate. 

Present. Past. Past Participle. 

Cleave, ; cleft, clove or clave, ; cleft, cloven or cleaved. 
Ring, rang or rung, rung. 

Spit, spit or spat, spit or spitten. 

23. Give other illustrations. 

24. What are the properties of verbs? The Properties 
of Verbs are Voice, Mood, Tense, Number and Person. 

LESSON XXV. 

The Verb Continued.— Voice and Mood. 

1. 'What is voice ? Voice is that property of a verb ; by 
which it shows, whether the subject is acting or acted upon. 

2. How many voices are there? There are two voices 
the active and the passive. 

3. What is the active voice? The active voice repre- 
sents the subject as acting. 

4. Illustrate. In the sentence "David killed the lion," 
" killed " is in the active voice, because it represents the 
subject as acting. Also in the sentence "Susan writes," 
" writes " is in the active voice, because it represents the 
subject " Susan " as acting. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. What is the passive voice ? The passive voice repre- 
sents the subject as acted upon. 

7. Illustrate. In the sentence " The lion was killed by 
David," "was killed" is in the passive voice, because it 
represents the subject as being acted upon. 

8. Give other illustrations. 

9. How is the passive voice formed ? The passive voice 
is formed by annexing the past participle to the various 
parts of the verb To Be. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 123 

10. What is mood ? Mood is the manner of expressing 
action, being or state. 

11. How many Moods are there? There are six moods, 
the Indicative, Subjunctive, Potential, Imperative, Infinitive 
and Participles. 

12. What is the indicative mood ? The indicative mood 
expresses the abstract idea of the verb as a fact, 

13. Illustrate. Caesar conquered Gaul. Gaul was con- 
quered by Caesar. Here the abstract idea of the verb is 
simply kill and these verbs express this abstract idea as a fact. 

14. Give other illustrations. 

15. What is the subjunctive mood? The subjunctive 
mood expresses the abstract idea of the verb as conditional. 

16. Is there any subjunctive in English ? The subjunc- 
tive idea is essential in every language but there is no simple 
form for it in English, as there is for other moods. 

17. How is this idea expressed ? This idea is expressed 
by the Conditional Clause as a paraphrase. 

18. Illustrate. If you should strike luck, let me know at 
once. If John rides, I will walk. 

19. Give other illustrations. 

20. What equivalent has the Conditioned Clause, mostly 
in poetry, sometimes in prose ? The Conditioned Clause 
has an equivalent, in which the conjunction is left out and 
the order of subject and verb inverted. 

21. Illustrate. Should you strike luck, let me know at 
once. Should John ride, I will walk. 

22. Give other illustrations. 

23. How is the subjunctive mood in Latin and other lan- 
guages translated into English ? The subjunctive mood is 
translated by the Conditioned Clause and its equivalent. 

24. Why is it so translated? Because having no sub- 
junctive mood in English we have to use this paraphrase. 

25. In what moods are the verbs in these Conditional 
Clauses? The verbs in these Conditioned Clauses are in 
the indicative and potential moods. 

26. Do teachers practice the theory of those Gramma- 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

rians, who try to give a subjunctive mood ? Teachers do 
not, a person was in good English schools as pupil and 
teacher for twenty years and never heard a subjunctive 
mood parsed. 

27. How do some writers use the verb in the subjunctive 
paraphrase? Some writers allow no change of termination 
for person and number in the present tense and use were 
for was in the past tense of the verb to be. 

28. Illustrate. If I love, If you love, If he love etc. 

If I were, If you were, If he were etc. 

29. What does the word subjunctive mean? The word 
subjunctive means subjoined or subjoining. 

30. Why is this Subjunctive Paraphrase so called ? Be- 
cause it is always used in subordinate clauses, which are 
subjoined or subordinate to the principal verb or clause of 
the sentence. 

31. Illustrate. I will trust in Him, though he should 
slay me. If I apply myself, I shall become wise. 

32. Give other illustrations. 

33. Where is the Subjunctive Paraphrase further treated? 
For the form of the subjunctive mood so called see appendix 
to Part Second. 

LESSON XXVI. 

The Verb Continued.— Mood and Tense Continued. 

1. What is the potential mood? The potential mood 
expresses the abstract idea of the verb under limitations of 
liberty, power, duty, inclination or necessity or as what 
may, can, must, might, could, would or should happen. 

2. Illustrate. David might have hilled the lion. The 
lion might have been hilled by David. John must learn his 
lesson. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. What is the imperative mood ? The imperative mood 
expresses the abstract idea of the verb as a command, an 
entreaty, an exhortation or a permission. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 125 

5. Illustrate. Kill the lion. Fall into ranks. " Come unto 
me all ye that labor." 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. What is the infinitive mood? The infinitive mood 
expresses the abstract idea of the verb without any limita- 
tions of person or number and without affirmation. 

8. Illustrate. To hill the lion. To ~be hilled by the lion. 
To sleep. To bite. To ride. To run. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. What is the participle mood ? This form expresses 
the abstract idea of the verb as an Adjective or a Noun, 

11. Illustrate. The huntsman having hilled the lion 
returned home. The general forbade leaving the camp. 
There is a rule against whispering. 

12. Give other illustrations. 

13. What does the word tense mean? The word tense 
means time. 

14. What are tenses ? Tenses are different forms of the 
verb to denote the different times of an action or event. 

15. How many Grand Divisions of time are there ? There 
are three Grand Divisions of time, the Present, the Past and 
the Future. 

16. How many tenses are there? There are six tenses, 
two for each Grand Division of time. 

17. Why has the Present Time two tenses ? It has one 
tense, the present, to denote action continued and one, the 
present perfect, to denote action completed in present time. 

18. What is the present tense ? The present tense 
expresses the action, being or state as going on in the present 
time. 

19. Illustrate. John writes. William sings. Kufus 
dances. 

20. Give other illustrations. 

21. What is the present perfect tense? The present 
perfect tense denotes the action, being or state as completed 
in present time. 

22. Illustrate. John has come. The leaves have fallen. 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

23. Give other illustrations. 

24. Why has the Past Time two tenses ? It has one 
tense, the past, to denote action going on in past time and 
one, the past perfect, to denote action, being or state as com- 
pleted in past time. It has hut two, because there are hut 
two kinds of time to express. 

LESSON XXVII. 

The Verb Continued. — Tense Continued. 

1. What is the past tense ? The past tense expresses 
the action, being or state as going on in past time. 

2. Illustrate. The horse ran. The apples were ripe. 
David loved Jonathan. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. What is the past perfect tense? The past perfect 
tense denotes the action, being or state as ended or completed 
in past time. 

5. Illustrate. Caesar had conquered Gaul, before he en- 
tered Britain. Pompey had heen Caesar's friend. 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. Why has the future Grand Division two tenses ? It 
has one, the future tense, to denote action continued in future 
time and one, the future perfect tense, to denote completed 
action in future time. 

8. What is the future tense ? The future tense denotes 
the action, being or state as going on in future time. 

9. Illustrate. The bird will fly. The flowers will hloom. 
The ship will come in. 

10. Give other illustrations. 

11. What is the future perfect tense? The future perfect 
tense denotes the action, being or state as completed in 
future time. 

12. Illustrate. The bird will have flown. The lark will 
have sung. The leaves will have fallen. 

13. Give other illustrations. 

14. How many tenses has the indicative mood? The 
indicative mood has all six of the tenses. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 127 

15. How many has the potential mood ? The potential 
mood has four tenses, the present, the present perfect, the 
past and the past perfect 

16. How many has the imperative mood ? The impera- 
tive mood has one tense, the present. 

17. Why has the imperative but one tense ? Because a 
command is never past rior future but always present. 

18. How many tenses has the infinitive mood? The 
infinitive mood has two tenses, the present and the present 
perfect. 

19. How many tenses has the participle form? The 
participle mood has two tenses, the present and the past. 

20. Why should the Preterit Participle be called Past 
instead of Perfect ? Because the time it denotes is past or 
aorist and not perfect or present perfect. 

21. Illustrate this. In the sentence "Having loved his 
own, he loved them unto the end," "having loved" 
expresses indefinite past time and not present perfect time 
or time connected with the present. 

22. Give other illustrations. 

23. How many participles has the present tense ? The 
present tense has two participles, the present active and 
the present passive. 

24. Illustrate. Present A ctive, Loving ; Present Passive, 
Being Loved. Active, Killing ; Passive, Being Killed. 
Active, Cutting; Passive, Being Out. 

25. Give examples in other verbs. 

26. How many participles has the past tense? The 
past tense has four participles, two active and two passive. 

27. Illustrate. Active, having loved; having been loving. 
Passive, loved; having been loved. Also, Active, having 
killed ; having been killing : Passive, killed ; having been 
killed. 

28. Give examples in other verbs. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXVIII. 

The Verb Continued.— Person and Number.— Conju- 
gation. — Forms of Conjugation. 

1. What is the person and number of the verb ? Number 
and person are those variations in form, which verbs pass 
through in order to agree with their subjects. 

2. When the subject contains pronouns of different per- 
sons, in what order should they come ? The second person 
should come before the third and the third before the first. 

3. Illustrate. You, he and I should go to town. You, 
Cicero and I have been wronged. 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. Of what number and person then should the verb be ? 
The verb should be of the plural number and agree with 
the pronoun of the most worthy person. 

6. What is the most worthy person ? The verb prefers 
the first person to the second and the second to the third. 

7. Illustrate. Thou, he, and we were wronged. Here, if 
the verb agreed with thou, it would be wert and, if it agreed 
with he, it would be was. So it agrees with we. 

8. Give other illustrations. 

9. What number and person must a verb have after a 
collective noun? A collective noun, signifying many as 
one whole, has a verb in the singular but a collective noun, 
signifying many as individuals, has a verb in the plural. 

10. Illustrate. The crowd (one whole) rushes. The 
crowd (individuals) rush. 

11. Give other illustrations. 

12. Of what person is the verb, when its compound sub- 
ject is of different persons joined by or or nor? In this case 
the verb prefers the person of the subject next to it. 

13. Illustrate You, they or Cicero has loved Caesar. 

14. Give other illustrations. 

15. Show in what these examples are alike. 

16. What is the conjugation of a verb ? The conjugation 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 129 

of a verb is the orderly statement of its different Voices, 
Moods, Tenses, Numbers and Persons. 

17. What is the synopsis of a verb ? The synopsis of a 
verb is the orderly statement of its different Voices, Moods 
and Tenses in but one number and person. 

18. How many Forms of conjugation have verbs ? Verbs 
hsLYefive Forms of conjugation ; the Common, the Emphatic, 
the Interrogative, the Continuous and the Solemn. 

19. What is the Common Form ? The Common Form is 
the ordinary form. 

20. What is the Emphatic Form ? The Emphatic Form 
expresses the action, being or state with emphasis. 

21. What is the Interrogative Form ? The Interrogative 
Form expresses the action, being or state as a question. 

22. What is the Continuous Form ? The Continuous 
Form expresses the action, being or state in continuance. 

23. What is the Solemn Form? The Solemn Form 
expresses the action, being or state with solemnity as in the 
Bible and other serious discourse. 

24. What is the difference between this and the Common 
Form ? In the Solemn Form the verb has to agree with 
thou and its plural ye instead of you. 

LESSON XXIX. 

The Verb Continued.— Conjugation Continued.— 
Forms Continued. 

1. Illustrate the Common Form by the Present Tense. 

INDICATIVE PRESENT. 

Common Form. 



Singular. 

1. I love, 

2. You love, 

3. He loves ; 






Plural. 

1. We love, 

2. You love, 

3. They love. 


2. Give other examples. 






3. Illustrate the 


Emphatic 


Form. 





130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Emphatic Form. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 

2. You do love, 2. You do love, 

3. He does love; 3. They do love. 

4. Give other examples. 

5. Illustrate the Interrogative Form. 

Interrogative Form, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Love I ? 1. Love we ? 

2. Love you ? 2. Love you ? 

3. Loves he ? 3. Love they ? 

6. Give other examples. 

7. Illustrate the Continuous Form. 

Continuous Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loving, 1. We are loving, 

2. You are loving, 2. You are loving, 

3. He is loving; 3. They are loving. 

8. Give other examples. 

9. Illustrate the Emphatic and Interrogative Forms com- 
bined. 

Emphatic and Interrogative. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Do I love ? 1. Do we love ? 

. 2. Do you love ? 2. Do you love ? 

3. Does he love ? 3. Do they love ? 

10. Five other examples. 

11. Illustrate the Progressive and Interrogative Forms 
combined. 

Progressive and Interrogative. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Am I loving ? 1. Are we loving ? 

2. Are you loving ? 2. Are you loving ? 

3. Is he loving ? 3. Are they loving ? 




PAR8ING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



131 



12. Give other examples. 

13. Are other tenses capable of being changed in this 
way? The past and some other tenses can be changed in 
form like the present. 

14. Illustrate the Solemn Form with the present tense. 



Indicative Mood.— Solemn Form. 

Present Tense, 
lar. Plural. 

1. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Thou lovest, 2. Ye love, 

3. He loves ; 3. They love. 

Illustrate with the past tense. 



15. 



Past Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 

3. He loved ; 



Plural. 

1. We loved, 

2. Ye loved, 

3. They loved. 



16. Illustrate with the future tense. 



Future Tense. 



17. 
14. 



Singular. 

1. I shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 

3. He will love; 

Give other illustrations. 

To how many tenses is this form applicable? 



Plural. 

1. We shall love, 

2. Ye will love, 

3. They will love. 



The 



Solemn Form is applicable to all the moods and tenses. 



LESSON XXX. 

The Verb Continued.— Conjugation Continued.— 
Principal Parts. — Auxiliaries. 

1. What are the Principal Parts of a verb ? The Prin- 
cipal Parts of a verb are the present indicative, the past 
indicative and the ip&st passive participle. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. What are auxiliary verbs ? Auxiliary verbs are those 
used in the conjugation of other verbs. 

3. Illustrate. I shall love. You will be. 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. Give the auxiliary verbs. May, can, must, shall, will, 
have, do and be. 

6. Which of them are also principal verbs ? Be, have, 
will and do are also principal verbs. 

7. Illustrate. Be kind. I have a book. He willed me a 
farm. All should do right. 

8. Give other illustrations. 

9. How many tenses of these verbs are used as Auxili- 
aries ? Only two, the present and the past. 

10. Illustrate. I do love. I did love. You have loved. 
You had loved. 

11. Give other illustrations. 

12. How are shall and will used? In the Future shall is 
used in the first person and will in the second and third 
persons. 

13. Illustrate. I shall love. We shall love. Ye or you 
will love. He or they will love. 

14. Why is this ? We use shall in speaking of ourselves 
in the first person and not will, because we have control of 
ourselves. We must use will in the second and third 
persons : because we do not possess the same control over 
those; to whom and of whom we speak, as we do over our- 
selves. 

LESSON XXXI. 

The Verb Continued.— Paradigm of the Verb To Be. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

(Signs ; do, have, had, shall and will.) 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. You are, 2. You are, 

3. He is; 3. They are. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



133 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We have been, 

2. You have been, 

3. They have been. 

Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We were, 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We had been, 

2. You had been, 

3. They had been. 

Future Tense, 

Plural. 

1. We shall be, 

2. You will be, 

3. They will be. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. You will have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been; 3. They will have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

(Signs ; may, can, must, might, could, would and should.) 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can or must be, 1. We may be, 

2. You may be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. You may have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 



Singular. 

1. I have been, 

2. You have been, 

3. He has been ; 

Singular. 

1. I was, 

2. You were, 

3. He was ; 

Singular. 

1. I had been, 

2. You had been, 

3. He had been ; 

Singular. 

1. I shall be, 

2. You will be, 

3. He will be; 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might or could be, 1. We might be, 

2. You might be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be; 3. They might be. 

Past Perfect Tense, 
Singular. ' Plural. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. You might have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

(Sign To) 

Present Tense. 

To be. 

Present Perfect Tense, 
To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present Tense. 
Being. 
Past Tense. 
Been, Having been. 

LESSON XXXII. 

The Verb Continued. — Paradigm of the Verb To Be 
Continued. 

1. Give the principal parts of this verb. 

2. In the Indicative give the tense, which denotes con- 
tinued action, and the one, which denotes completed action 
in the present time. In giving them name, in the following 
manner, the Voice, Mood, Tense, Number and Person of the 
forms given. 

Present Indicative. 
Singular. Plural. 

First person, I am, First person, We are, 

Second person, You are. Second person, You are, 

Third person, He is ; Third person, They are. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 135 

Present Perfect Indicative, 
Singular. Plural. 

First person, I have been, First person, We have been, 
Second person, You have been, Second person, You have been, 
Third person, He has been ; Third person, They have been. 

3. In the same mood give in the same way the tense, 
which denotes continued action, and the one, which denotes 
completed action in the past time. 

4. In the same mood and in the same way, give the tense, 
which denotes continued action, and the one, which denotes 
completed action in the future time. 

5. In the potential mood give in the same way the 
tense, which denotes continued action, and the one, which 
denotes completed action in the present time. 

6. In the same mood give in the same manner the two 
tenses of the past time. 

7. In the imperative mood give its only tense. 

8. In the infinitive mood, give the tense denoting con- 
tinued action and the one denoting completed action in 
present time. 

9. Give, as in the Paradigm, the present and past parti- 
ciples. 

LESSON XXXIII. 

Conjugation Continued.— Verb To Be Continued. 

Stand up and give the whole of the verb to be according 
to the directions in the preceding lesson. 

LESSON XXXIV. 

The Verb Continued. — Paradigm of the Verb To Be 
Continued. 

Repeat this verb and continue the exercise for several 
days, if necessary, until the verb is perfectly mastered. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON 

Paradigm of 

Principal Parts : Present, Kill ; Past, 
INDICATIVE 







Active Voice. 






Present Tense. 




Singular. 


. Plural. 


1. 


I kill, 


1. We kill, 


2. 


You kill, 


2. You kill, 


3. 


He kills; 


3. They kill. 



Present Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have killed, 1. We have killed, 

2. You have killed, 2. You have killed, 

3. They have killed ; 3. They have killed. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I killed, 1. We killed, 

2. You killed, 2. You killed, 

3. They kill ; 3. They killed. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had killed, 1. We had killed, 

2. You had killed, 2. You had killed, 

3. They had killed; 3. They had killed. 







Future Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I shall kill, 


1. We shall kill, 


2. 


You will kill, 


2. You will kill, 


3. 


He will kill; 


3. Thev will kill, 



Future Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have killed, I. We shall have killed, 

2. You will have killed, 2. You will have killed, 

3. He will have killed ; 3. They will have killed. 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

{For treatment of this mood, 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 137 

XXXV. 

the Verb to Kill. 

Killed ; Past Participle, Killed. 
MOOD. 







Passive Voice. 






Present Tense, 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I am killed, 


1. We are killed, 


2. 


You are killed, 


2. You are killed, 


3. 


He is killed ; 


3. They are killed 



Present Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been killed, 1. We have been killed, 

2. You have been killed, 2. You have been killed, 

3. He has been killed ; 3. They have been killed. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. , Plural. 

1. I was killed, 1. We were killed, 

2. You were killed, 2. You were killed, 

3. He was killed; 3. They were killed. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been killed, 1. We had been killed, 

2. You had been killed, 2. You had been killed, 

3. He had been killed ; 3. They had been killed. 

Future Tense. 
Singular. ? Plural. 

1. I shall be killed, 1. We shall be killed, 

2. You will be killed, 2. You will be killed, 

3. They will be killed; 3. They will be killed. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been killed, 1. We shall have been killed, 

2. You will have been killed, 2. You will have been killed, 

3. He will have been killed ; 3. They will have been killed. 

MOOD. 

see Appendix to Part Second.') 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

POTENTIAL 

Active Voice. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may kill, 1. We may kill, 

2. You may kill, 2. You may kill, 

3. He may kill ; 3. They may kill. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have killed, 1. We may have killed, 

2. You may have killed, 2. You may have killed, 

3. He may have killed ; 3. They may have killed. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might kill, 1. We might kill, 

2. You might kill, 2. You might kill, 

3. He might kill; 3. They might kill. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have killed, 1. We might have killed, 

2. You might have killed, 2. You might have killed, 

3. He might have killed ; 3. They might have killed. 

IMPERATIVE 

Active Voice. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Kill or kill thou; 2. Kill or kill ye. 

INFINITIVE 
Active Voice. 

Present Tense. 
To kill. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
To have killed. 

PARTICIPLE 

Active Voice. 

Present Tense. 
Killing. 

Past Tense. 
Having killed, Having been killing. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 139 

MOOD. 

Passive Voice. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be killed, 1. We may be killed, 

2. You may be killed, 2. You may be killed, 

3. He may be killed ; 3. They may be killed. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been killed, 1. We may have been killed, 

2. You may have been killed, 2. You may have been killed, 

3. He may have been killed ; 3. They may have been killed. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be killed, 1. We might be killed, 

2. You might be killed, 2. You might be killed, 

3. He might be killed; 3. They might be killed. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been killed, 1. We might have been killed, 

2. You might have been 2. You might have been 

killed, killed, 

3. He might have been 3. They might have been 

killed; killed. 

MOOD. 

Passive Voice. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be killed or be thou killed ; 2. Be killed or be ye or you 

killed. 
MOOD. 

Passive Voice. 

Present Tense. 
To be killed. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
To have been killed. 

MOOD. 

Passive Voice. 

Present Tense. 

Being killed (if used). 

Past Tense. 
Killed, Having been killed. 



140 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



LESSON XXXVI. 



The Verb Continued.— Conjugation Continued.— 
Tenses in Pairs. 

1. In the indicative mood and active voice, give first the 
tense denoting continued action and then the one denoting 
completed action in Present Time, always naming the voice, 
mood, tense, number and person in the following manner. 

Present Indicative. — Active Voice. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person, I kill, First person, We kill, 

Second person, You kill, Second person, You kill, 

Third person, He kills; Third person, They kill. 

Present Perfect Indicative. — Active Voice. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person, I have killed, First person, We have killed, 
Second person, You have Second person, You have 

killed, killed, 

Third person, He has killed ; Third person, They have 

killed. 

2. Give in the same manner the tenses of the past Grand 
Division of time. 

3. Give in the same manner the tenses of the future 
Grand Division of time. 

4. In the potential mood, give in the same manner the 
two Present Tenses. 

5. Give in the same manner the two Past Tenses. 

6. Give the imperative active as in the Paradigm. 

7. In the infinitive active give the tense denoting con- 
tinued action and the one denoting completed action in 
Present Time as in the Paradigm. 

8. Give the present participle active. 

9. Give the past participles active. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 141 

LESSON XXXVII. 

The Verb Continued.— -Conjugation Continued.— 
Tenses in Pairs Continued. 

1. In the same manner as in the indicative mood, active 
voice, give the two Present Tenses of the indicative passive. 

2. In this manner give the two Past Tenses. 

3. Give also the two Future Tenses. 

4. In the potential mood, give the two Present Tenses. 

5. Give the two Past Tenses. 

6. Give the imperative passive as in the Paradigm. 

7. Give the two Present Tenses of the infinitive mood as 
laid down in the Paradigm. 

8. Give the present participle as in the Paradigm. 

9. Give the past participle as in the Paradigm. 

LESSON XXXVIII. 

The Verb Continued. — Conjugation Continued. — 
Tenses in Pairs Continued. Both Voices. 

1. Now give in both Voices the two tenses of the present 
Grand Division of time in the indicative mood. 

2. Give the two tenses of the Past Time in both voices. 

3. Give the two tenses belonging to the Future Time in 
both voices. 

4. In the potential mood give the tenses of the Present 
Time in both voices. 

5. Give the two Past Tenses in both voices. 

6. Give the imperative as in the Paradigm in both voices, 
giving the active voice first. 

7. Give the Two Tenses of the infinitive in both voices. 

8. Give the present participles in both voices as in the 
Paradigm. 

9. Give the past participles in both voices as in the 
Paradigm. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXXIX. 

The Verb Continued.— Conjugation Continued.— 
Eeview of the Verb To Kill. 

Now stand up and give the verb To Kill entire both 
active and passive as laid down in the Paradigm giving the 
tenses denoting Present Time in the active voice first and 
then the same tenses in the passive before going on to the 
past tense. 

LESSON XL. 

The Verb Continued.— Conjugation Continued.— 
Keview of the Verb To Kill Continued. 

Eepeat this verb for weeks, if necessary, until perfectly 
mastered. 

LESSON XLI. 

The Verb Continued.— Conjugation Continued. — 
The Verb To Scrub. 

In the same manner conjugate the verb To Scrub in both 
voices. 

LESSON XLII. 

The Verb Continued.— Conjugation Continued. — 
The Verb To Loye. 

In the same manner conjugate the verb To Love in both 
voices. 

LESSON XLIII. 

The Verb Continued.— Conjugation Continued. — 
The Verb To Have. 

Conjugate, as designated above, the verb To Have. 



PASSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 143 

LESSON XLIV. 

The Verb Continued.— Conjugation Continued. — 
The Verb To Do. 

Conjugate in the same manner the verb To Do. 

LESSON XLV. 

The Verb Continued. — Conjugation Continued.— 
Analysis oe Tenses. 

1. Analyze the present indicative. The present indica- 
tive is the simple form of the verb. 

2. Illustrate. I love, I. kill, I run. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. Analyze the present perfect. The present perfect is 
composed of the past participle with have or hast placed 
before it. 

5. Illustrate. I have loved. Thou hast killed. 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. Analyze the past tense. The past tense is composed 
of the simple form of the verb with d or ed annexed, when 
regular. When irregular see the table of irregular verbs. 

8. Illustrate. I loved. I killed. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. Analyze the past perfect tense. The past perfect 
tense is composed of the past participle and had or hadst 
prefixed. 

11. Illustrate. I had loved. I had killed. Thou hadst 
killed. 

12. Analyze the future tense. The future tense is com- 
posed of the simple form of the verb and shall or will or 
shalt or wilt prefixed. 

13. Illustrate. I shall kill. You will kill. Thou wilt 
kill. Thou shalt kill. 

14. Give illustrations from other verbs. 

15. Analyze the future perfect tense. The future per- 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

feet tense is composed of the past participle with shall have 
or will have or shalt have or wilt have prefixed. 

16. Illustrate. I shall have killed. You will have killed. 
Thou wilt have killed. 

17. G-ive other illustrations. 

18. Analyze the present potential. The present poten- 
tial is composed of the simple form of the verb with the 
signs may, can or must or mayst, canst or must prefixed. 

19. Illustrate. I may, can or must kill. You may, can 
or must love. Thou mayst, canst or must love. 

20. Give other illustrations. 

21. Analyze the present perfect of the potential. The 
present perfect of the potential is composed of the past 
participle with the signs may, can or must have or mayst, 
canst or must have prefixed. 

22. Illustrate. I may have, can have or must have loved. 
Thou mayst have, canst have or must have loved. 

23. Give other illustrations. 

24. Analyze the past tense. The past tense of the 
potential is composed of the simple form of the verb with 
the signs might, could, would or should or mightst, couldst, 
wouldst or shouldst prefixed. 

25. Illustrate. I might, could, would or should kill. 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst or shouldst kill. 

26. Give other illustrations. 

27. Analyze the past perfect tense. The past perfect 
tense of the potential is composed of the past participle 
and the signs might have, could have, should have or would 
have or mightst, couldst, wouldst or shouldst have prefixed. 

28. Illustrate. I might have, could have, would have or 
should have killed. Thou mightst have, couldst have, 
wouldst have or shouldst have killed. 

29. Give other illustrations. 

30. Analyze the imperative. The imperative present is 
the first form of the verb and is known by its always being of 
the second person and agreeing with thou or you understood. 

31. Illustrate. Love you. Kill thou. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 145 

32. Analyze the present infinitive. The present infin- 
itive is the first form of the verb and is known by the sign 
to prefixed, which is omitted frequently after the verbs dare, 
bed, feel, help, let, make and others. 

33. Illustrate. To come. He bid me come. He made 
me come. He would not let me go. 

34. Give other illustrations. 

35. Analyze the present perfect infinitive. The present 
perfect infinitive is composed of the past participle and 
the sign to have prefixed. 

36. Illustrate. He intended to have sailed before the elec- 
tion. 

37. Give other illustrations. 

38. Analyze the present participle active. The present 
participle active is composed of the simple form of the verb 
with ing annexed. 

39. Illustrate. Loving. Killing. Running. 

40. Give other illustrations. 

41. Analyze the past participle passive. The past parti- 
ciple passive, one of the Principal Parts of the verb, is 
formed on the simple form of the verb, and usually ends in 
d or ed, but often in n, en or t. 

42. Illustrate. Loved. Killed. Spent. Hid. Fallen. 

43. Give other illustrations. 

44. Analyze the present passive participle. The Present 
Passive Participle ought rarely, if ever, to be used. This 
participle is formed by placing being before the past parti- 
ciple. 

45. Illustrate. Instead of " The house is leing built" say 
" The house is in building" Though this participle is not 
elegant, its use in some situations seems to be unavoidable. 

46. Give other illustrations. 

47. Analyze the past active participle. The past active 
participle is formed by placing having been before the 
present participle. 

48. Illustrate. Having been killing. Having been loving. 

49. Analyze the second form of the past participle pas- 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sive. The second form of the past participle passive is 
formed by placing having teen before the first form of the 
past or perfect participle. 

50. Illustrate. Having leen loved. Having oeen killed. 

51. Give other examples. 

LESSON XLVI. 

The Verb Continued.— Synopsis of the Verb To Kill. 

Give the synopsis of the verb To Kill in the First Person 
Singular through the different Moods and Tenses. 

Indicative Mood. 
Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

Pres. I kill, Pres. I am killed, 

Pres. Perf I have killed, Pres. Perf I have been killed, 

Past I killed, Past I was killed, 

Past Perf. I had killed, Past Perf. I had been killed, 

Future I shall kill, Future I shall be killed, 

Fut. Perf. I shall have Fut. Perf. I shall have been 
killed; killed. 

Potential Mood. 
Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

Pres. I may kill, Pres. I may be killed, 

Pres. Perf. I may have Pres. Perf I may have been 

killed, killed, 

Past I might kill, Past I might be killed, 

Past Perf I might have Past Perf. I might have been 
killed; killed. 

Imperative Mood. 
This Mood has the Second Person but not the first. 

Infinitive Mood. 
This Mood has no Person. 

Participles. 
Participles have no Person. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 147 

LESSON XLVII. 

The Verb Continued.— Synopsis of the Verb To Kill 
Continued. 

Give the synopsis of the verb To Kill in the Second Per- 
son Singular through the different Moods and Tenses. 

LESSON XLVIII. 

The Verb Continued. — Synopsis of the Verb To Kill 
Continued. 

Give the synopsis of the verb To Kill in the Third Per- 
son Singular through the different Moods and Tenses. 

LESSON XLIX. 

The Verb Continued.— Synopsis of the Verb To Kill 
Continued. 

Give the synopsis of the verb To Kill in the First Per- 
son Plural through the different Moods and Tenses. 

LESSON L. 

The Verb Continued.— Synopsis of the Verb To Kill 
Continued. 

Give the synopsis of the verb To Kill in the Second Per- 
son Plural through the different Moods and Tenses. 

LESSON LI. 

The Verb Continued.— Synopsis of the Verb To Kill 
Continued. 

Give the synopsis of the verb To Kill in the Third Per- 
son Plural through the different Moods and Tenses. 



148 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON LII. 

The Verb Continued. — List of Verbs Always or 
Sometimes Irregular. 

Past Participle. 
abode, 
awoke, 
awaked, 
been. 

born. 

borne, 
beaten, 



Present. 


Past. 


Abide, 


abode, 


Awake, 


awoke, 
awaked, 


Be or Am, 


was, 


Bear (to firing forth), 


bare, 
bore, 


Bear (to carry), 


bore, 


Beat, 


beat, 


Become, 


became, 


Befall, 


befell, 


Beget, 


begat, 
begot, 


Begin, 


began, 


Behold, 


beheld, 


Belay, 


belaid, 
belayed, 


Bend, 


bent, 
bended, 


Bereave, 


bereft, 
bereaved, 


Beseech, 


besought, 


Bet, 


bet, 
betted, 


Betide, 


betided, 
betid, 


Bid, 


bid, 
bade, 


Bite, 


bit, 


Bind, 


bound, 


Bleed, 


bled, 



become, 
befallen. 

begotten. 

begun. 

beheld. 

belaid, 

belayed. 

bent, 

bended. 

bereft, 

bereaved. 

besought. 

bet, 

betted. 

betided, 

betid. 

bid, 

bidden. 

bitten, 

bit. 

bound. 

bled. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



149 



LESSON LIII. 

The Verb Continued.— List of Verbs Always or 
Sometimes Irregular Continued. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participh 


Bless, 


blessed, 
blest, 


blessed, 
blest. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Break, 


brake, 
broke, 


broken, 
broke. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


builded, 
built, 


builded, 
built. 


T> 


burned, 


burned, 


Burn, 


burnt, 


burnt. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chid, 
chidden. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave (to adhere), 


cleaved, 
clave, 


cleaved, 
cleft. 


Cleave, 


clove, 
clave, 


cloven, 
cleaved. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, 
clad, 


clothed, 
clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, 
crowed, 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare, 


durst, 
dared, 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 



150 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 

Dig, 

Do, 
Draw, 

Dream, 

Dress, 

Drive, 

Eat, 

Fall, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Forbear, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 

Flee, 

Fling, 

Fly, 

Freeze, 

Freight, 

Get, 

Give, 

Gild, 

Gird, 
Go, 



LESSON LIV. 




ed.— Irregular Verbs Continuee 


Past. 
digged, 
dug, 
did, 


Past Participle, 
digged, 
dug. 
done. 


drew, 


drawn. 


dreamt, 


dreamt, 


dreamed, 


dreamed. 


drest, 
dressed, 


drest, 
dressed. 


drove, 


driven. 


ate, 


eaten. 


fell, 


fallen. 


fed, 


fed. 


felt, 


felt. 


fought, 
found, 


fought, 
found. 


forbore, 


forborne. 


forgot, 
forsook, 


forgotten, 

forgot. 

forsaken. 


fled, 


fled. 


flung, 
flew, 


flung, 
flown. 


froze, 


frozen. 


freighted, 
got, 


fraught, 
freighted, 
got, 
gotten. 


gave, 

gilt, 

gilded, 

girded, 

girt, 

went, 


given. 

gilt, 

gilded. 

girded, 

girt. 

gone. 



PARSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



151 



The Verb 

Present. 

Grave, 

Grind, 
Grow, 

Hang, 

Have, 

Heave, 

Hew, 

Hear, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Kneel, 

Knit, 

Know, 

Lay, 

Lead, 

Lean, 

Leap, 

Learn, 
Leave, 



LESSON LV. 




id. — Irregular Verbs 


CONTINTJ] 


Past. Past Participlt 


graved, 


graven, 
graved. 


ground, 


ground. 


grew, 
hung, 
hanged, 
had, 


grown, 
hung, 
hanged, 
had. 


hove, 


hoven, 


heaved, 


heaved. 


hewed, 


hewn, 
hewed. 


heard, 


heard. 


hid, 


hidden, 
hid. 


hit, 


hit. 


held, 


holden, 
held. 


hurt, 


hurt. 


kept, 
kneeled, 


kept, 
kneeled, 


knelt, 


knelt. 


knit, 


knit, 


knitted, 


knitted. 


knew, 


known. 


laid, 


laid. 


led, 


led. 


leant, 


leant, 


leaned, 


leaned. 


leapt, 

leaped. 

learnt, 


leapt, 

leaped. 

learnt, 


learned, 


learned. 


left, 


left. 



152 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 





LESSON LVI. 




The Veeb Continued. — Iebegulae Veebs Continue; 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle, 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie (to recline), 


lay, 


lain. 


Light (of a bird), 


lit, 


lit. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost, 
laden, 


Load, 


loaded, 


loaded. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, mown, 


mowed. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Pass, 


past, 


past, 


passed, 


passed. 


Pen (to enclose), 


pent, 
penned, 


pent, 
penned. 


Pen (to write), 


penned, 


penned. 


Plead, 


pleaded, 
pled, 


pleaded, 
pled. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Quit, 


quit, 


quit, 


quitted, 


quitted. 


Rap, 


rapt, 


rapt, 


rapped, 


rapped. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Keaye, 


reft, 


reft. 


Eend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 
ridden, 


Ride, 


rode, 


rode. 


Ring, 


rang, 
rung, 


rang, 
rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



153 



LESSON I. VII. 



The Verb Continued.- 

Present. 

Eive, 

Run, 

Sow, 

Say, 
See, 



-Irregular Verbs Continued. 



Seethe, 

Seek, 

Set, 

Shake, 

Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 
Shoot, 
Show, 
Shred, 

Shrink, 

Shut, 

Set, 
Sit, 

Sing, 
Sink, 



Past. 

rived, 

ran, 

sowed, 

said, 

saw, 

sod, 

seethed, 

sought, 

set, 

shook, 

shaped, 
shaved, 

sheared, 

shed, 

shined, 

shone, 

shod, 

shot, 

showed, 

shred, 

shrank, 

shrunk, 

shut, 

set, 

sat, 

sung, 

sang, 

sunk, 



Past Participle. 
riven, 
rived, 
run. 
sown, 
sowed, 
said, 
seen, 
sodden, 
seethed, 
sought, 
set. 

shaken, 
shapen, 
shaped, 
shaven, 
shaved, 
shorn, 
sheared, 
shed, 
shined, 
shone, 
shod, 
shot, 
shown, 
shred, 
shrank, 
shrunken, 
shut, 
set. 
sat. 

sung, 
sunk. 



154: 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON LVIII. 

The Verb Continued. — Irregular Verbs Continued. 



Present, 

Sow (of grain), 

Slay, 

Sleep, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smell, 

Smite, 

Speak, 
Speed, 

Spell, 

Spend, 

Spill, 

Spin, 

Spit, 

Split, 
Spread, 

Spring, 

Spoil, 

Stay, 

Stand, 

Stave, 



Past 

sowed, 

slew, 

slept, 

slung, 

slunk, 

slit, 

smelt, 

smote, 

spoke, 

sped, 

spelt, 

spelled, 

spent, 

spilt, 

spilled, 

span, 

spun, 

spat, 

spit, 

split, 

spread, 

sprang, 

sprung, 

spoilt, 

spoiled, 

staid, 

stayed, 

stood, 

stove, 

staved, 



Past Participle. 
sown, 
sowed, 
slain, 
slept, 
slung, 
slunk, 
slit, 
smelt, 
smelled. 
smit, 
smitten, 
spoken, 
sped, 
spelt, 
spelled, 
spent, 
spilt, 
spilled. 

spun. 

spit, 
spitten. 
split, 
spread. 

sprung. 

spoilt, 

spoiled. 

staid, 

stayed. 

stood. 

stoven, 

staved. 



PARSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



155 



LESSON LIX. 

The Verb Continued. — Irregular Verbs Continued. 



Present. 
Steal, 
Stick, 
Sting, 

Stride, 

Strow, 

Swear, 

Sweat, 

Sweep, 

Strike, 

String, 
Strive, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 

Take, 

Teach, 

Tear, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 
Thrust, 

Tread, 
Wax, 



Past. 
stole, 
stuck, 
stung, 
strid, 
strode, 

strowed, 

sware, 
swore, 
sweat. 



swept, 
struck, 

strung, 
strove, 

swelled, 

swam, 

swum, 

swung, 

took, 

taught, 

tore, 

told, 

thought, 

throve, 

thrived, 

threw, 

thrust, 

trod, 
waxed, 



Past Participle. 
stolen, 
stuck, 
stung, 
strid, 
stridden, 
strowed, 
strown. 

sworn. 

sweat, 

sweated. 

swept. 

stricken, 

struck. 

strung. 

striven. 

swelled, 

swollen. 

swum. 

swung. 

taken. 

taught. 

torn. 

told. 

thought. 

thriven, 

thrived. 

thrown. 

thrust. 

trod, 

trodden. 

waxen, 

waxed. 



156 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The Verb 

Present. 

Weave, 

Weep, 

Wake, 

Wed, 

Wet, 

Whet, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Work, 

Wring, 

Write, 



LESSON LX. 






ed. — Irregular Verbs 


Continue: 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


wove, 




woven, 


weaved, 




weaved. 


wept, 




wept. 


woke, 




woke, 


waked, 




waked. 


wedded, 




wedded, 


wed, 




wed. 


wetted, 




wetted, 


wet, 




wet. 


whetted, 




whetted, 


whet, 




whet. 


won, 




won. 


wound, 




wound. 


wrought, 




wrought, 


worked, 




worked. 


wrung, 




wrung. 


wrote, 




written. 


LESSON LXI. 






The Adverb. 







1. What is an Adverb? An Adverb is a word which 
limits the meaning of a Verb, an Adjective, a Participle or 
an Adverb. 

2. Illustrate. He catches the ball well, Very black, 
Tenderly loving, Very angrily etc. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. What is the etymology of the word? The word 
Adverb, from ad to and verbum the word, means added or 
attached to the principal word or verb of a sentence. 

5. How many kinds of Adverbs are there? There are 
eight kinds of Adverbs, the Temporal, the Local, the 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 157 

Causal, the Modal, the Negative, the Affirmative, the Inter- 
rogative and the Degree Adverb. 

6. What is a Temporal Adverb ? A Temporal Adverb is 
one, which limits its word by reducing its meaning to a 
particular Time. 

7. Illustrate. Twice red and once green, She sails to-night, 
He came formerly etc. 

8. Give other illustrations. 

9. Give a list of Temporal Adverbs. Hereafter, forever, 
ever, anon, ago, after, hereafter, immediately, now, seldom, 
sometimes, when, weekly, yet, until etc. 

10. Give other Temporal Adverbs. 

11. What is a Local Adverb ? A Local Adverb is one, 
which limits its word by reducing its general meaning to a 
particular place. 

12. Illustrate. Directly opposite, Look above, Come here, 
Sit down etc. He prays in his closet. 

13. Give other illustrations. 

14. Give a list of Local Adverbs. Hence, therein, where, 
here, hither, down, above, whence, everywhere, somewhere, 
yonder, forth, away, aloft, ashore, forwards, secondly, thirdly, 
fourthly, wherever, there etc. 

15. What is a Causal Adverb ? A Causal Adverb is one, 
which limits a word by assigning a particular cause. 

16. What is peculiar about Causal Adverbs ? It is pecu- 
liar, that there are so few single words of this class. They 
are mostly Adverbial Phrases and Adverbial Clauses. 

17. Illustrate. I came for money, I came, because I 
wanted money. He was whipped for crying, Hung for 
murder. 

18. Give other illustrations. 

19. Give a list of Causal Adverbs. 

20. What is a Modal Adverb ? A Modal Adverb is one, 
which limits its word by reducing its meaning from a gen- 
eral to a particular mode or manner. 

21. Illustrate. He reprimands sharply. He lies still. 
He prayed earnestly. Sobbing sorrowfully* 



158 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

22. Explain the sentence " He reprimands sharply." If 
we say " He reprimands " this will apply to any manner of 
reprimanding, because the term "reprimands" is general 
and unlimited. When we put. in the word "sharply"; this 
is a Modal Adverb, because it reduces reprimand from a 
general manner or from being done just any way to a 
particular manner. 

23. Give other illustrations. 

24. G-ive a list of Modal Adverbs. Bravely, softly, justly, 
foolishly, badly, anyhow, nowise, no, verily, indeed, sweetly, 
probably, perchance, softly etc. 

25. Give others. 

26. What is a Negative Adverb ? A Negative Adverb is 
one, which limits its word by reducing it from a general to 
a negative meaning. 

27. Illustrate. They have not come, She is nowise well, 
He will leave home no more, He is none too wise etc. 

28. Give other illustrations. 

29. Give a list of Negative Adverbs. Not, no, nay, none. 

30. Give others. 

31. What is an Affirmative Adverb? An Affirmative 
Adverb is one, which limits its word by reducing it from a 
general to an affirmative meaning. 

32. Illustrate. He will doubtless come again, The ship 
will certainly arrive on time, Verily I will not stay etc. 

33. Give other illustrations. 

34. Give a list of Affirmative Adverbs. Certainly, really, 
doubtless, yea, yes, verily etc. 

35. Give others. 

36. What is an Interrogative Adverb ? An Interrogative 
Adverb is one, which limits its word by changing or reducing 
it from a general to an interrogative meaning. 

37. Illustrate. When did he come ? Whence did he 
come ? etc. 

38. Give other illustrations. 

39. Give a list of Interrogative Adverbs. Where, whether, 
whence, when, why, how etc., all of which belong also to 
the locals, causals or temporals. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 159 

40. Give other interrogatiyes. 

41. What is a Degree Adverb ? A Degree Adverb is one, 
which limits its word by changing or reducing its meaning 
to a particular degree. 

42. Illustrate. More wise. Less wise. As soft as clay. 
He alioays reads thus. He reads loud enough. He talks 
sufficiently well. 

43. Give other illustrations. 

44. Give a list of Degree Adverbs. Thus, sufficiently, 
so, enough, as, little, less, much, more, most etc. 

45. Give others. 

LESSON LXII. 

The Adverb Continued. — The Adverbial Phrase.— 
The Adverbial Clause. 

1. What is an Adverbial Phrase? An Adverbial Phrase 
is an Infinitive Phrase or a Prepositional Phrase used, like 
an Adverb, to limit a word's meaning. 

2. Illustrate. He works in vain. He fell into the sea. 
He fights to Mil. He recites to astonish you. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. What is an Adverbial Clause ? An Adverbial Clause 
is a subordinate proposition used, like an Adverb, to limit a 
word's meaning. 

5. Illustrate. Go, where duty calls thee. He returned 
home, when he completed his engagement etc. 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. How many kinds of Adverbial Phrases and Adverbial 
Clauses are there ? The Phrases and Clauses belong to the 
eight different classes just like single Adverbs. 

8. Illustrate. In the sentence " Go, where duty calls thee" 
"where duty calls thee " is a Local Adverbial Clause and, in 
the sentence " He works for wages" "for wages" is a Causal 
Adverbial Phrase. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. Are Adverbs ever used as other parts of speech ? 
Adverbs are often used as other parts of speech. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

11. Illustrate. In the sentence " He gave but one cent," 
but is an Adverb ; in the sentence " None but the wise can 
enter," but is a preposition and in the sentence " He is feeble 
but brave," but is a conjunction, 

12. Give illustrations with other words. 

13. What is a Conjunctive Adverb ? A Conjunctive 
Adverb is one which connects a Subordinate with a Prin- 
cipal Clause and modifies the Predicate in each. 

14. Illustrate. While I live, will I praise the Lord. I 
shall be satisfied, when I awake with Thy likeness. 

15. Give other illustrations. In the sentence "John 
works, while James sleeps," the Conjunctive Adverb " while " 
connects the two verbs " works " and " sleeps " as a Conjunc- 
tion and modifies the same words as an Adverb. 

16. How must it be parsed? A Conjunctive Adverb 
must be parsed first as a Conjunction and then as an 
Adverb limiting the same words, which it connects. 

17. Illustrate. In the sentence "He came, when he was 
called," parse "when" first as a Conjunction connecting 
"came" and "was called" and then afterwards as an. 
Adverb limiting these same words. 

18. Give other illustrations. 

19. When are these words called Adverbial Conjunctives ? 
They are called Adverbial Conjunctives, when their conjunc- 
tive character is the strongest and Conjunctive Adverbs, 
when their adverbial character is the strongest. 

20. Give illustrations. 

21. Give a list of Conjunctive Adverbs. Till, since, 
before, as, therefore, how, after, until, where, while, when, 
wherefore, why etc. 

22. How are polysyllabic Adverbs compared? Polysyl- 
labic Adverbs, in ascending comparison, are compared by 
prefixing more and most to the Positive. 

23. Illustrate. Wisely, more wisely, most wisely; Darkly, 
more darkly, most darkly; Beautifully, more beautifully, 
most beautifully. 

24. Give other illustrations. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 161 

25. How are monosyllabic Adverbs and some others com- 
pared ? These Adverbs are compared, in ascending compar- 
ison, by adding r or er and st or est to the Positive. 

26. Illustrate. Often, oftener, oftenest; Soon, sooner, 
soonest ; Fast, faster, fastest etc. 

27. How are Adverbs compared in descending comparison ? 
All Adverbs, whether monosyllabic or polysyllabic, in 
Descending Comparison, are compared by prefixing less and 
least to the Positive. 

28. Illustrate. Wisely, less wisely, least wisely ; Darkly, 
less darkly, least darkly ; Slowly, less slowly, least slowly etc. 

29. Give other illustrations. 

30. How are the Adverbs in most frequent use compared ? 
The Adverbs in most frequent use are generally compared 
irregularly. 

31. Illustrate. Well, better, best; Bad, worse, worst; 
111, worse, worst ; Little, less, least etc. 

32. Give other illustrations. 

33. Give a comprehensive rule for comparing Adverbs. 
In Ascending Comparison, monosyllabic Adverbs are com- 
pared by adding r or er and st or est but polysyllabic 
Adverbs by prefixing more and most to the Positive; in 
Descending Comparison, all Adverbs, whether monosyllables 
or polysyllables, are compared by prefixing less and least to 
the Positive ; some are compared irregularly ; some do not 
admit of Comparison. 

34. What is an Independent or Expletive Adverb ? An 
Independent or Expletive Adverb is one, that limits no par- 
ticular word but is merely used to fill out, commence or 
introduce the sentence. 

36. Illustrate. Why, when do you expect to come? 
There noiv, after so long I am ready. There is a better 
world to come. He said there was no bread. Now, I don't 
know and so don't ask me. 

37. Give other illustrations. 

38. How is an Independent or Expletive Adverb to be 
parsed ? An Independent or Expletive Adverb is to be 



162 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

parsed by the same scheme as other adverbs, except that they 
limit no particular word. They are really Absolute Ele- 
ments. 

39. What does the word Expletive mean? This word, 
from the Latin ex out and pleo I fill, means to fill out. 

40. Illustrate. In the sentence " Noiv, I don't know and 
so don't ask me" "Now" is an Expletive Adverb, because it 
is merely used to fill out the sentence or the space. 

41. G-ive a list of Adverbs. Once, twice, first, secondly, 
lastly, here, there, where, forward, backward, upward, 
downward, hence, thence, now, today, already, before, lately, 
tomorrow, henceforth, henceforward, by-and-by, oft, often, 
ofttimes, oftentimes, daily, much, little, wisely, justly, surely, 
wherefore etc. 

42. Write as many more. 

LESSON LXIII. 

The Paeticiple. 

1. What is the participle? The participle is a mood or 
form of the verb, which has also the form and properties of 
an Adjective or a Noun. 

2. What is the etymology of the word? The word is 
derived from the Latin word pars a part and capio I take 
and is so called, because it partakes of the properties of tivo 
parts of speech. 

3. Illustrate. In the sentence "John having killed the 
tiger went home," " having killed " is one of the forms or 
moods of the verb To Kill and partakes of the properties of 
this verb and also of the properties of an adjective modifying 
"John." 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. What properties of a verb has it? A participle is like 
a verb : first, in being transitive or intransitive ; second, in 
expressing time ; third, in having voice and fourth, in 
expressing action. 

6. How is it like an adjective ? A participle is like an 



PAKSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 163 

adjective; first, in having agreement with a noun and 
second, in often being capable of comparison. 

7. Of what properties of a noun can a participle partake? 
A participle can be like a noun in having case, person and 
gender. 

8. Illustrate. In the sentence " The law forbids fishing," 
"fishing" is in the objective case, third person, neuter gender. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. When we say a participle partakes of the properties 
of an adjective or noun, why is this expressed by " or " and 
in the disjunctive ? Because a participle never partakes of 
the nature or properties of an adjective and of a noun at the 
same time. 

11. What properties of a verb then can a participle have ? 
A participle can have four properties of a verb, Action, 
Voice, Time and Governing power. 

12. Illustrate. In the sentence " Charles was carried 
home lacerated with wounds," " lacerated " has three prop- 
erties of the verb To Lacerate; voice, tense or time and 
action received. It has also two properties of an Adjec- 
tive, Comparison and Limitation over the noun " Charles." 

13. Illustrate again. In the sentence " The law forbids 
lacerating citizens with wounds," " lacerating " has four 
properties of a verb ; Voice, Time, Action and Government 
and three properties of a noun, Person, Gender and Case. 

14. Give other illustrations. 

15. How many participles are there ? There are six par- 
ticiples, two present and four past participles. Of the 
present, there are one active and one passive. Of the past 
there are two active and two passive. 

16. Give the participles of the verb To Kill. 

Active. Passive. 

Present, Killing, Present, Being killed. 

Past, Having killed, Past, Killed, 

Having been killing ; Having been killed. 

17. What is the present active participle? The present 



164: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

active participle expresses action, being or state as continu- 
ing in the present Grand Division of time and it is formed 
by adding ing to the simple form of the verb. 

18. Illustrate. The blacksmith, hammering from morning 
until night, is a happy and a useful man. 

19. Give other illustrations. 

20. "What is the present passive participle ? The present 
passive participle expresses action, being or state suffered or 
received and continuing in present time. Its form is com- 
pound, made by placing being before the past or perfect 
participle. 

21. Illustrate. The house is being built. 

22. Explain this form. This form of expression is not 
considered very elegant and should be replaced, when pos- 
sible, by some such circumlocution as in building. 

23. Illustrate. Not, The house is being built but The 
house is in building. 

24. How many past participles are there? There are 
four past participles; three of which are compound in form 
and one simple ; making, with the present passive, four com- 
pound participles. 

25. Of what tense are these participles ? These parti- 
ciples are of the past tense, because they express completed 
action, being or state. 

26. What is the past or perfect participle ? The past or 
perfect participle, when regular, is formed by adding d or 
eel to the present indicative form. When irregular, it gen- 
erally ends in n, en or t. 

27. Illustrate. Partridges, killed, dressed and cooked, are 
a choice dish. Money, won and lost, leaves the player no 
better off. The iron, hammered the most, is the most brittle. 

28. Give other illustrations. 

29. Why should this form or mood of the verb be called 
the past rather than the perfect participle? This should be 
called the past participle, because the time it expresses is 
the past or aorist and not the perfect or present perfect. 

30. How are the compound forms of this participle 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 165 

formed ? These compound participles are formed by 
placing Having or Having been before the past or perfect 
participle or Having been before the present participle. 

31. Illustrate. Having loved, Having killed, Having 
been loved, Having been loving. 

32. Give other illustrations. 

33. How are all the past participles alike? They are 
alike in tense and meaning but different in form. 

35. How are participles compared ? Participles are com- 
pared by the same rules as Adjectives. 

36. Illustrate. Loved, more loved, most loved ; Admired, 
more admired, most admired etc. 

37. Give other illustrations. 

38. Where else has the participle been treated ? Under 
the head of mood and also of tense. 

39. Give a list of participles. Loving, Killing, Asking, 
Teaching, Having killed, Having fought, Having been 
wounded, Having been beaten, Loved, Confined, Fretted etc. 

40. Give other examples. 

LESSON LXIV. 

The Preposition". 

1. What is a preposition ? A preposition is a word used 
to show the relation of its object to the word, which the 
prepositional phrase limits. 

2. What is the etymology of this word ? This word is 
derived from the Latin word prae before and positum put 
and hence means a word placed before another. 

3. What is the object of a preposition ? The nouns, before 
which they are placed are called their objects. 

4-. What is a Prepositional Phrase ? A preposition and 
its object constitute a Prepositional Phrase. 

5. Illustrate. In town. Under the tree. Beyond Jordan. 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. When is a Prepositional Phrase an adjective element ? 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A Prepositional Phrase is an adjective element, when it 
limits the meaning of a noun. 

8. Illustrate. John of Boston has come. Here of Boston 
modifies John. In the sentence " Men of wisdom are praised," 
" of wisdom " modifies " men" Also birds of prey, beasts of 
burden etc. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. When is it an adverbial element ? A Prepositional 
Phrase is an adverbial element, when it limits the meaning 
of a verb, adjective, participle or adverb. 

11. Illustrate. John has come from Boston. Herefrom 
Boston limits has come. In the sentence " He sits on a 
stool," " on a stool " limits " sits." He lives for glory. The 
poor work for bread. 

12. Give other illustrations. 

13. What is the subsequent term of the relation ? The 
object of the preposition is the subsequent term of the rela- 
tion, which the preposition shows. 

14. Illustrate. In the expression "John of Boston," 
" Boston " is the subsequent term of the relation. In the 
expression " He lives for glory," " glory " is the subsequent 
term of the relation which the preposition " for " shows. 

15. Give other illustrations. 

16. What is the antecedent term of relation ? Some ante- 
cedent word, a verb, a noun, an adjective, a participle or an 
adverb is the antecedent term of the relation. 

17. Illustrate. In the sentence " Cicero lived at Eome," 
" lived " is the Antecedent Term of relation. In the sen- 
tence "He loves money for its own sake," "loves" is the 
Antecedent Term of the relation. 

18. Give other illustrations. 

19. Does the preposition show the relation of its object to 
a Vert or a Noun? The preposition may show the relation 
of its object to either. 

20. When does it show the relation of its object to a 
noun? A preposition shows the relation of its object to a 
noun, when the Prepositional Phrase is an adjective element. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 167 

21. Illustrate. In the sentences given below the Prepo- 
sitional Phrase is an adjective element, consequently the 
preposition shows the relation of its object to the noun. 

The book on the table is mine. 
The book under the table is mine. 
The book by the table is mine. 
The book at the table is mine. 
The book over the table is mine. 
The book with the table is mine. 
The book near the table is mine. 
The book in the table is mine, 

22. Explain these examples. In these examples the prepo- 
sition shows the relation of its object table to the noun book, 
because the Prepositional Phrase is an adjective element. 
Each preposition shows a different relation. 

23. Give and explain other examples. 

24. When does the preposition show the relation of its 
object to a verb or other word ? The preposition shows this 
relation, when the Prepositional Phrase is an adverbial ele- 
ment. 

25. Illustrate. 

The boy swam under the bridge. 
The boy swam over the bridge. 
The boy swam round the bridge. 
The boy swam to the bridge. 
The boy sivam below the bridge. 
The boy swam above the bridge. 
The boy swam at the bridge. 
The boy swam into the bridge. 

26. Explain these illustrations. Here the several prepo- 
sitions show the several relations of the object bridge to the 
verb swam, because here the phrase is an adverbial element. 

27. Give and explain other illustrations. 

28. When is the preposition omitted? The preposition 
is omitted before words denoting extent of distance, time, 
measure or value. 

29. Illustrate. John stayed a year. John went a mile. 
The book is worth a dollar. The horse is sixteen hands high. 



168 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

30. Give other illustrations. 

31. Why is the preposition omitted ? The preposition is 
omitted before these words, because their relation to the 
antecedent term is apparent without it. 

32. What is said of these objects in this situation ? These 
objects are said to be in the objective case without a govern- 
ing word but really they are governed by the Preposition 
understood. 

33. In the sentence " He is a bad guide to go by" how is 
" by " parsed ? In this instance " by " is parsed as part of 
the verb and the verb is considered compound. 

34. In the sentence " The carriage passed by/' how do you 
parse " by " ? Here the object of the preposition is under- 
stood, and " by " is parsed as an adverb of place or a local 
adverb. 

35. In the sentence " James is older than John," explain 
"than." When "than" connects two sentences, it is a con- 
junction but, when just followed by a noun or pronoun, it is 
a preposition, because it expresses a relation. 

LESSON LXV. 

The Peeposition Continued. 

Memorize twenty-two prepositions. About, Above, Across, 
After, Against, Along, Amid, Amidst, Among, Amongst, 
Around, At, Athwart, A, As to, Bating, Before, Below, 
Behind, Beneath, Beside, Besides. 

LESSON LXVT. 

The Peeposition Continued. 

Memorize twenty-two more. Between, Betwixt, Beyond, 
But, By, Concerning, Down, During, Ere, Except, Except- 
ing, For, From, In, Into, Notwithstanding, Of, Off, On, 
Over, Out of, Past. 



PARSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 169 

LESSON LXVII. 

The Preposition Continued. 

Memorize twenty-two more. Pending, Eegarding, Ee- 
specting, Bound, Save, Since, Through, Throughout, Till, 
To, Touching, Toward, Towards, Under, Underneath, 
Until, Unto, Up, Upon, With, Within, Without. 

LESSON LXVIII. 

The Preposition Continued. 

Eepeat the entire list, Sixty-six, until they are com- 
pletely mastered. 

LESSON LXIX. 

The Conjunction.— Copulatives, Disjunctives, Cor- 
relatives. 

1. What is a conjunction ? A conjunction is a word used 
to connect words, phrases, clauses or entire sentences. 

2. What is the etymology of this word ? This word comes 
from con together and jungo I join and hence means a join- 
ing word. 

3. How many classes of conjunctions are there ? There 
are two classes, co-ordinate conjunctions and subordinate con- 
junctions or connectives. 

4. What are co-ordinate conjunctions? Co-ordinate con- 
junctions are such as join words, phrases, clauses or entire 
sentences of the same kind or class. 

5. Illustrate. In the sentences "Karl sings and Mary 
dances" and "If Karl should sing and Mary should dance," 
" and " is a co-ordinate conjunction ; because, in the first in- 
stance, it connects two principal and, in the second instance, 
two subordinate members or sentences. But in the sentence 
" Karl sings while Mary dances " or " Karl will sing if Mary 
will dance," "while" and u if" are not co-ordinate but 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

subordinate conjunctions, because they connect subordinate 
sentences with principal sentences. 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. How many kinds of co-ordinate conjunctions are there ? 
Of co-ordinate conjunctions there are three kinds, copula- 
tive, disjunctive and correlative. 

8. What is a copulative conjunction ? A copulative con- 
junction joins words, phrases, clauses and sentences denoting 
addition, increase or continuance. 

9. Illustrate. The thief was overtaken and arrested. 
The thief was tried and imprisoned. John, James, Wil- 
liam, Joseph and Samuel. 

10. Give other illustrations. 

11. What is a disjunctive conjunction? A disjunctive 
conjunction joins words, phrases, clauses and sentences by 
expressing opposition of meaning. 

12. Illustrate. The thief was pursued hotly hut could 
not be taken. The criminal will be either hung or impris- 
oned. 

13. Give other illustrations. 

14. What are correlative conjunctions? Correlative con- 
junctions are copulatives or disjunctives used in pairs. 

15. Illustrate. Either John or James can go. He will 
either ride or walk. Either and or in these sentences are 
correlatives. As the thief is, so is his accomplice. 

16. Give other illustrations. 

17. How do conjunctions connect propositions? Con- 
junctions connect propositions by joining the chief word of 
one member to the chief word of the other. 

18. What words do conjunctions prefer to connect in 
propositions? Conjunctions in connecting propositions 
prefer to join their verts and, next to these, their subjects. 

19. Illustrate. In the sentence " John runs fast and 
James walks slowly," "and" prefers to connect the verb 
"runs" with the verb " walks " and next to these it prefers to 
connect their subjects, " John and James." 

20. Give other illustrations. 



PARSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 171 

21. Explain this. A cavalryman, in holding several 
horses together, holds them not by the manes nor by the 
stirrups of their saddles but by a more material part, the 
heads; so conjunctions, in holding large members together, 
prefer to hold by or connect their most material and essen- 
tial elements, the predicates or the subjects. 

22. In the sentence "John of Boston and James of 
Trenton went to London" what does "and" connect? 
"And" here prefers to connect "John " and "James" but 
may be said to connect " went " and " went" understood. 

23. Does this apply to anything else than sentences? 
This also applies to elements. 

24. Illustrate. In the element " The man, who stole, and 
the boy, who robbed," what word out of all these does 
"and" connect ? "And " connects " man " and " boy," the 
hases of the two elements. 

25. Give a list of co-ordinate conjunctions. Also, and, 
both, as, not only, but also (copulatives); or, nor, either, 
neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, except 
that, whether, lest, unless, notwithstanding, save, provided, 
whereas (disjunctive); Both — and, either — or, whether — or, 
and some other words used as antecedents and subsequents 
and sometimes called correlative conjunctions. 

26. How should correlative conjunctions be parsed ? 
Correlative conjunctions should be parsed both as one word 
and by the same scheme for parsing. 

27. Why are adversative conjunctions not mentioned? 
Adversatives are not mentioned, because they are only a 
stronger variety of disjunctives. 

LESSON LXX. 

The Conjunction Continued. — Connectives. 

1. What are connectives or subordinate conjunctions? 
Connectives are conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, pro- 
nouns and other words used to connect a Subordinate 
Clause with a Principal Clause. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. How many kinds of connectives are there ? There are 
twelve kinds of connectives, Local, Temporal, Causal, 
Modal, Final, Comparative, Consecutive, Conditional, Con- 
cessive, Pronominal, Interrogative and Objective. 

3. What are local connectives? Local connectives are 
words introducing a local clause or one denoting location. 

4. 'Illustrate. "Go, where duty calls thee." Take your 
stand, where the fox will pass. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. What is a temporal connective ? Temporal connectives 
are such, as introduce temporal clauses or clauses denoting 
time. 

7. Illustrate. Come, when you wish. Attend, when you 
are summoned. 

8. Give other illustrations. 

9. What is a causal connective ? Causal connectives are 
such, as introduce causal clauses or clauses denoting cause. 

10. Illustrate. He will be learned, for he is studious. 
" Because I live, ye shall live also." 

11. Give other illustrations. 

12. What are modal connectives ? Modal connectives are 
such, as introduce clauses of manner, or such, as assign the 
manner of the principal clause. 

13. Illustrate. He died, as he lived. He looked, as ifhe 
were angry. He explained, how he got into the house. 

14. Give other illustrations. 

15. What are final connectives? Final connectives are 
such, as introduce final clauses, or such, as express aim, 
object or intention. 

16. Illustrate. I come, that I may assist you. He asked, 
that the carriage might be brought up. 

17. Give other illustrations. 

18. What are comparative connectives ? Comparative 
connectives are such, as introduce comparative clauses. 

19. Illustrate. You are older, than you are wise. He is 
stronger, than I am. 

20. Give other illustrations. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 173 

21. What are consecutive connectives ? Consecutive con- 
nectives are such as introduce a consecutive clause or one 
denoting a consequence. 

22. Illustrate. He was so studious, that he became 
learned. He was so fat, that he could not walk. 

23. Give other illustrations. 

24. What is a conditional connective ? A conditional 
connective introduces a conditional clause or one denoting 
a condition. 

25. Illustrate. He will become learned, if he be studious. 
He will succeed, if he is industrious. 

26. Give other illustrations. 

27. What is a concessive connective ? A concessive con- 
nective is one, which introduces a concessive clause or a 
clause conceding or granting something or making a con- 
cession. 

28. Illustrate. "I will trust in Him, though he slay me." 

29. Give other illustrations. 

LESSON LXXI. 

The Conjunction Continued. — Connectives Con- 
tinued. — Interrogatives. — The Interjection. 

1. What is a pronominal connective ? A pronominal con- 
nective is a relative or connective pronoun introducing the 
relative adjective clause and connecting it with the principal 
clause. 

2. Illustrate. " He, who steals my purse, steals trash." 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. How should pronominal conjunctions be parsed ? Pro- 
nominal conjunctions should be parsed first as pronouns 
and afterwards as conjunctions or subordinate conjunctions. 

5. How should the schemes used for parsing these parts 
of speech be applied ? The schemes used for parsing pro- 
nominal conjunctions should be applied separately. They 
should be parsed first as conjunctions and then as pronouns. 

6. What are interrogative connectives? Interrogative 



174 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

connectives are those pronouns and adverbs which intro- 
duce the interrogative clause or the indirect question. 

7. Illustrate. John inquired, where James had gone. 
John inquired, what James had done. John inquired, which 
came first. John inquired, who was in the house. 

8. What are objective connectives ? 

9. What are adverbial conjunctions ? The adverbial con- 
junctions are the same as conjunctive adverbs and are such 
words ; as connect two clauses, the principal and subordinate 
and modify the predicate in each. 

10. Why are these words sometimes called conjunctive 
adverbs and sometimes adverbial conjunctions? For the 
reason ; that, in some, the conjunctive and, in others, the 
adverbial character predominates. 

11. Illustrate. Go, where duty calls thee. I will go, 
as soon as I have eaten my dinner. In the former, the 
adverbial character and, in the latter, the conjunctive char- 
acter predominates. 

12. Give other illustrations. 

13. How should adverbial conjunctions be parsed? 
Adverbial conjunctions should be parsed first as conjunc- 
tions connecting the predicates and then afterwards as 
adverbs modifying the same predicates. 

14. Illustrate. In the sentence Go, where duty calls 
thee, "where" should be first parsed as a conjunction and 
then as an adverb. 

15. Give other illustrations. 

16. What scheme for parsing should be used? The 
scheme for parsing conjunctions and the scheme for 
parsing adverbs should be used separately. 

17. How should these groups as if, as soon as, as well as, 
forasmuch as etc. be parsed ? These groups should be 
parsed as single connectives or as adverbial conjunctions. 

18. Illustrate. In the sentence " He came, as soon as he 
could," " as soon as" is an adverbial conjunction and a con- 
nective and should be parsed first as a conjunction and then 
as an adverb. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 175 

19. Give other illustrations. 

20. What is the difference between connectives and 
adverbial conjunctions. These classes of words coincide to 
a great extent. All adverbial conjunctions are connectives 
but all connectives are not adverbial conjunctions. 

21. Give a list of connectives. Thence, when, wherefore, 
because, so, consequently, accordingly, that, so that, as' 
except, unless, if, for, although, whereas, lest, inasmuch as,' 
hence, therefore, for, so, when, until, after, whilst, before, 
ere, whither, whence, there, where, notwithstanding that' 
forasmuch as, as well as, as if, if— then, so— as, notwith- 
standing—yet, though— yet, who, which, what, who ? which ? 
what ? since, seeing that, though etc. 

22. What is an interjection ? An interjection is a word 
thrown in between the elements of a sentence to express 
the speaker's emotion. 

23. What is the etymology of the word ? The word is 
derived from the Latin inter between and jactus cast and 
hence signifies a word thrown in. 

24. What are the relations of an interjection ? An inter- 
jection has no relation either of government, limitation or 
connection to the elements of a sentence. 

25. Where should the exclamation point be placed? 
The exclamation point should be placed immediately after 
the interjection or those words, with which the interjection 
is closely connected. 

26. Why should it not always be placed immediately after 
the interjection ? The following words are often so closely 
joined to the interjection, that the insertion of the exclama- 
tion point would separate them too widely. 

27. When should the point come immediately after the 
interjection ? The point should come immediately after the 
interjection, when the following words are not closely joined 
to the interjection. 

28. Illustrate. Hark! 'Tis the cannon's opening roar. 
Pshaw! what signifies a dollar? 

29. Give other illustrations. 



176 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

30. When should the point come after the following 
words ? The point should come after the following words, 
when they are too closely connected with the interjection 
for it to come between them, 

31. Illustrate. Fie Charles! what is the matter ? Hush, 
my good friend ! Don't say so. 

32. Give other illustrations. 

33. Here give a list of interjections. Hem ! Ho ! Foh ! Fie ! 
Away! Lo! Behold! Hark l' Hush! Hist! Hail! All hail! 
Strange! Really! Heigh! Tush! Pish! Ah! Alas! Oh! 0! 
etc. 

34. Here give as many more. 



THIRD DIVISION. 

LESSON LXXII. 

Home Derivation. 

1. What is the third part of etymology ? The third part 
of etymology is the Derivation of words from other words in 
our own language. 

2. How are these derivations made ? Derivations of this 
kind are made by the use of affixes. 

3. What are affixes ? Affixes are words, syllables or letters 
attached to one word to form another. 

4. How many kinds of affixes are there ? There are two 
kinds of affixes, called prefixes and suffixes. 

5. What is a prefix ? A prefix is a word, syllable or letter 
placed before one word to form another. 

6. Illustrate. Reform, from re and form ; Return, from 
re and turn ; Conform, from con and form etc. 

7. Give other illustrations. 

8. What are suffixes? Suffixes are words, syllables or 
letters placed after one word to form another. 

9. Illustrate. Kinglike, from king and like', Kingly, 



PARSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 177 

from Icing and ly ; Warfare, from war and /we; Successful, 
from success and ful. 

10. Give other illustrations. 

11. What are words, formed from other words, called ? 
Words, formed from other words, are called derivatives or 
derivative words. 

12. Illustrate. Unhorse is a derivative from un and 
horse. Eider is a derivative from ride and er. 

13. Give other illustrations. 

14. What are the words, from which they are derived, 
called ? The words, from which they are derived, are 
called primitive words. 

15. Illustrate. Horse, walk, garden, tree, shrub, ride, 
king, war, mad. 

16. Give other illustrations. 

17. In what are these examples all alike? 

18. Give some important prefixes. Re, un, im or in, a or 
db, pre, be, self, counter, for, fore, mis, over, out, under, up, 
with etc. 

19. What does the prefix re mean? Be means bach or 
again. 

20. Illustrate. Eeform to form again. Return to turn 
bach. 

21. Give other illustrations. 

22. What does un mean ? Un is privative in its force and 
means contrariety. 

23. What is a privative particle? Privative means de- 
priving and a privative particle is one ; which deprives a 
word, before which it is placed, of its meaning. 

24. Illustrate. Catalectic means left out, acatalectic means 
not left out. Unkind means just the opposite of kind. 

25. Give other illustrations. 

26. Illustrate. Unbridle, to take off the bridle; Un- 
written, not written; Unflinching, not flinching etc. 

27. Give other illustrations. 

28. What does in mean ? In or im means not, a^ 
in or into and is sometimes privative in its signification. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

29. Illustrate. Inclose, incase, infringe, infold, intact etc. 

30. Give other illustrations. 

31. How is a or ab used ? A or ab is used with a priva- 
tive force, depriving the root or primitive word of its mean- 
ing and it also means on, in, at or to. 

32. Illustrate. In aboard, ashore, aslant and abed, a is 
equal to on. But acatalectic means not catalectic. 

33. Give other illustrations. 

LESSON LXXIII. 

Home Derivation Continued. 

1. What is the meaning of pre ? Pre means before and 
adds this meaning to the primitive. 

2. Illustrate. Prefix, to fix before-, Predirect, to direct 
before ; Prearrange, to arrange before ; Prefigure, to indicate 
before. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. What does be mean ? Be means upon or over but is 
sometimes used to add intensity or for euphony only. 

5. Illustrate. In bespatter, becloud, besmear, it means 
over or upon, but in beloved, bedazzle, bemoisten, it is 
intensive or euphonic only. 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. Are the roots or primitives, to which these prefixes are 
attached, always proper English words ? The roots or primi- 
tives, to which these words are attached, are not always 
proper English words. 

8. Illustrate. In the words inaccurate and invaluable, 
the roots are proper English words but, in the words 
infringe, impact and indulge, the roots are not proper 
English words. They cannot be separated from the prefix. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. What are the roots called, when they are proper Eng- 
lish words ? When proper English words, the roots are 
called separate roots or radicals. 

11. What are they called, when they are not proper Eng- 



PASSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 179 

lish words ? When the roots are not proper English words, 
they are then called inseparable roots or radicals. 

12. Explain other prefixes. 

13. Give some important suffixes. Be, less, able or ible, 
ed, ive, ing, ity, oy, ion or ian, ation, al, ate, ite etc. 

14. What is the meaning of ee ? Ee means the person to 
whom or towards whom the meaning of the radical word 
tends. 

15. Illustrate. Donee means the person, to whom the gift 
was made. Trustee means the person, who is trusted. Ref- 
eree means the person, to whom something is referred. 

16. Give other illustrations. 

17. What does less mean ? Less means without. 

18. Illustrate. Doubtless, tuithout doubt; Fruitless, with- 
out fruit; Eaultless, without fault. 

19. Give other illustrations. 

20. What does able or ible mean? Able or ible means 
capable of being. 

21. Illustrate. Transferable, capable of being transferred ; 
Inhabitable, capable of being inhabited etc. 

22. Give other illustrations. 

23. What does ed mean ? Ed as a suffix means comple- 
tion. 

24. Illustrate. Fenced means, that the fencing is com- 
pleted ; Formed means, that the forming is completed ; 
Walked means, that the walking is completed etc. 

25. Give other illustrations. 

26. What does ive mean ? Ive means adapted to or for. 

27. Illustrate. Instructive means adapted to instruct; 
Productive means adapted to produce etc. 

28. Give other illustrations. 

29. What does ing mean ? Ing means continuing to. 

30. Illustrate. Fishing means continuing to fish; Hunt- 
ing means continuing to hunt ; Working, continuing to worh 
etc. 

31. Give other illustrations. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON LXXIV. 

Home Derivation Continued. 

1. To what are the suffixes annexed ? Suffixes are oftener 
than prefixes attached to separate roots or radicals. 

2. Illustrate. In restless, raking, ripened, parental, in- 
structive etc., the suffix is attached to a separdte radical 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. Give some suffixes attached to inseparable radicals. 
Capable, respirable, refrangible, fusible etc. 

5. Give others. 

6. Show their similarity by explaining, why the insepa- 
rable radical is such. 

7. Are prefixes and suffixes ever doubled ? Prefixes and 
suffixes are often doubled. 

8. Illustrate. Re-arrange is formed by two prefixes, re 
and ar (ad) and fearfully and fearful ness are formed by 
double suffixes. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. Are derivatives ever formed by both prefixes and suf- 
fixes ? Derivatives are often so formed. 

11. Illustrate. Arrangement is formed upon the radical 
range by the prefix ar [ad) and the suffix ment. Fulfilling 
is formed from fill by ful and ing. 

12. Give other illustrations. 

13. How many derivatives can be formed from the sepa- 
rate radical or root press ? More than eighty derivatives 
are formed from this primitive. 

14. Give four formed by prefixes only, impress, suppress, 
im press, compress. 

15. Give others like these. 

16. Give four formed by suffixes only. 'Pressing, -pressure, 
pressed, presses. 

1?. Give others like these. 

18. Give some formed by both prefixes and suffixes. Re- 
pressive, suppression, compression, compressure, impressing 
etc. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 181 

19. Give others like these. 

20. Give two formed by double prefixes, decompress, 
0#e?Tompress. 

21. Giye others like these. 

22. Give two formed by double suffixes. Pressingly, 
Tpressureless. 

23. Give others like these. 

24. Now give two formed by double prefixes and double 
suffixes together. Irreipressively, insup-pressibleness. 

25. Give others like these. 

26. What other class of derivatives have we ? Com- 
pounds are derivatives from the simple words, of which they 
are composed. 

27. Illustrate. Flower-garden, millpond and whirlpool 
are derivatives of this class. 

28. Give other illustrations. 

29. How are their derivatives formed ? If permanent 
they are consolidated but, if temporary, they are united by 
the hyphen. 

30. Illustrate. Grapevine is a permanent compound and 
hence is consolidated but whiskey-merchant is temporary 
and hence its parts are united by the hyphen. 

31. Give other illustrations. 



FOURTH DIVISION". 

LESSON LXXV. 
Foreign Derivation. 

1. What is the Fourth Division of Etymology? The 
Fourth Division of Etymology is the derivation of words 
from other words in foreign languages. 

2. From what languages do we derive English words? 
From many languages but especially from the Latin, 
through the Norman French, and from the Greek. 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. What is showing the derivation of a word called? 
Showing the derivation of a word is called giving its etymo- 
logy. 

4. What is the etymology of the word pedigree ? Pedi- 
gree comes from pes a foot and gradus a step and hence 
means an account of one's 'past footsteps. 

5. Give the etymology of Locomotion. 

6. Give the etymology of the word geography. Geography 
comes from yrj the earth and ypa^xo I write and hence 
means a description of the earth. 

7. Give the etymology of anatomy. 

8. What is the etymology of philosopher ? Philosopher 
comes from <pi\os a lover or friend and o-o$m tvisdom and 
hence means a lover of tvisdom. 

9. Give the etymology of the word arithmetic. 

10. What is the etymology of the word seminary? Semi- 
nary comes from the word semen seed and hence means a 
school for sowing the seeds of learning. 

11. Give the etymology of orthography. 

12. What is the etymology of itinerant ? Itinerant comes 
from iter a journey or itinera journeys and means traveling 
or journeying. 

13. Give the etymology of etymology. 

14. What is the etymology of the proper name Amanda ? 
Amanda comes from amandus, the Future Passive Parti- 
ciple of amo Hove, and hence means one to be loved. 

15. Give the etymology of syntax. 

16. What is the etymology of the name Stella? The 
name comes from the noun stella a star. 

17. Give the etymology of prosody. 

18. From what does the word scandalize come ? Scan- 
dalize comes from o-KavSaXir© to offend. 

19. Give the etymology of abjure and adjure. 

20. Why is this lesson given ? This lesson is not given 
to exhaust but to suggest and guide the student to the study 
of this great subject. 

21. Can many words be formed from a common source ? 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 183 

One Latin or Greek word often furnishes many English 
derivatives. 

22. Illustrate. From dono I give, comes donation, donor, 
donating, donate, donee etc. 

23. Give all the words that come from capio I take* 

24. Illustrate again. From <f>i\os a lover and uocjua ivis- 
dom, come philosophy, philosopher, philosophize, philoso- 
phical, philosophically, unphilosophically etc. 

25. Give the derivatives from fero I" carry. 

26. Give further illustrations. 

27. Where can fuller information be found upon this sub- 
ject of Foreign Etymology ? In " Smith's Hand-Book of 
Etymology." 



LESSONS ON SYNTAX. 

(Here Give so much Syntax as is necessary for 
Parsing.) 

LESSON LXXVI. 

Syntax, Eelations, Government. 

1. What is syntax? Syntax is that part of Grammar; 
which treats of the construction of the sentence by showing 
the relations, which exist among its elements. 

2. What is Eelation ? Eelation is that mutual dependence, 
which the words and elements of a sentence have upon each 
other. 

3. How many kinds of relations are there ? There are 
three kinds of relations ; Eelations of Government, Eelations 
of Limitation and Eelations of Connection. 

4. If a hundred words were thrown into a box and then 
drawn out by a hoodwinked boy and arranged as drawn, 
would they form a sentence? They would not, because 
they would not sustain the proper relations to each other. 

5. What relations would they lack ? They would lack 



184 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

the proper relations of Government, Limitation and Con- 
nection. 

6. How many words are there in the English Language 
in all the books on all subjects prose and poetry ? There 
are many trillions of them. 

7. Into what great classes do these words fall ? These 
words naturally fall into three great classes; Governing 
words, Limiting words and Connecting words. 

8. Do these classes overlap each other ? They do. Many 
words belong to two or more of the classes. 

9. What is the relation of Government ? Government is 
the power ; which one word or element has over another of 
determining or controlling one or more of its properties of 
Voice, Mood, Tense, Gender, Number, Person or Case. 

10. Illustrate Government. In the sentence " Cicero 
speaks," " Cicero " governs " speaks," because it determines 
its properties of number and person. 

11. Give another illustration. 

12. What is Limitation ? Limitation is that power, which 
one word or element has over another of limiting or reducing 
it from a general to a special or particular meaning. 

13. Illustrate. The term " tree " is general and unlimited, 
embracing all varieties, but, in the expression "maple 
tree," the word " maple " has the power of Limitation over the 
word " tree," because it reduces " tree " from a general to a 
special or particular meaning. 

14. Give another illustration. The term "being" is gen- 
eral but, in the expression "human being," the word 
" human " has the power not of Government hut of Limita- 
tion over " being," because it reduces " being " from a gen- 
eral to a special or particular meaning. 

15. Give other examples. 

16. Show in what these examples are alike. 

17. What is Connection? Connection in Syntax is the 
power, one word has of coupling or showing the relations 
between others. 

18. Illustrate. John and James ; William of Boston ; He 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 185 

will be learned, because he is studious, are examples of 
connection. 

19. Give other illustrations. 

20. What is a sentence ? A sentence is a group of words 
or elements so related as to express a complete thought. 

21. Illustrate. Oh, that I had wings like a dove! 

22. How many points of Government are there in sen- 
tences ? There are nine points of Government in sentences. 

23. What is the first point of Government ? The first 
point is the Government of the subject by its verb in the 
Nominative according to Eule IX. 

24. Why is the subject governed by the verb ? The sub- 
ject is governed by the verb, because the verb requires it to 
be in the Nominative and so controls or determines its case. 

25. Give and explain an illustration. By comparing the 
sentences "He runs," "His runs" and "Him runs," it is 
easy to see, that the verb requires its subject to be in the 
nominative case. 

26. Give other illustrations. 

27. What is the second point of Government ? The second 
point is the Government of the verb by its subject in 
number and person according to Rule X. 

28. Why is the verb governed by its subject ? The verb 
is governed by its subject, because the subject controls or 
determines its number and person, 

29. Illustrate. In the sentences " Horses run" and " The 
horse runs" it is easy to see, that the subject controls the 
verb in number and person. 

30. Give other illustrations. 

LESSON LXXVII. 

Syntax Continued. — Relations Continued.-— Govern- 
ment Continued. 

1. What is the third point of Government ? The third 
point is the Government of the object by the verb in case 
according to Rule XV. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Why is the object governed by the verb ? The object 
is governed by the verb, because the verb controls or deter- 
mines its case. 

3. Give and explain illustrations. By comparing the sen- 
tences "The lion killed he," "The lion killed his" and 
" The lion killed him" it is easy to see, that the verb 
requires its object to be in the objective case. 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. What is Government ? 

6. What is the fourth point of Government ? The fourth 
point is the Government of the possessive by the word it 
limits according to Rule VII. 

7. Why is the possessive governed by the word it limits ? 
The possessive is governed by the word it limits, because 
this word controls or determines its Case. 

8. Give and explain an illustration. In the expression 
" Solomon's temple," " temple " requires its limiting word, 
Solomon's, to be in the possessive case. 

9. Give and explain other illustrations. 

10. What is Government ? 

11. What is the fifth point of Government? The fifth 
point is the Government of the appositive by the word it 
limits according to Rule VI. 

12. Why is the appositive governed by the word it limits ? 
The appositive is so governed, because this word controls or 
determines its case. 

13. What is Government ? 

14. What is the sixth point of Government ? The sixth 
point is the Government of the pronoun by its antecedent or 
subsequent according to Rule XVI. 

15. Why is the pronoun governed by its antecedent or 
subsequent ? The pronoun is so governed, because its ante- 
cedent or subsequent controls or determines its gender, 
number and person. 

16. Give and explain an illustration. In the expression 
" John cut his finger," the antecedent " John " requires its 
pronoun " his " to be in the masculine gender, third person 
and singular number. 



PARSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 187 

17. Give and explain another example. 

18. What is Government ? 

19. What is the seventh point of Government? The 
seventh point is the Government of the object by a parti- 
ciple according to Kule XV. 

20. Why is the object governed by the participle ? The 
object is governed by the participle, because the participle 
controls or determines its case, 

21. Give and explain an example. In the expression 
" Having killed the lion he went home," "having killed" 
governs " lion," because it controls its case. 

22. Give and explain another example. 

23. What is Government ? 

24. What is the eighth point of Government? The 
eighth point is the Government of the infinitive by the word 
it limits according to Rule VIII. 

25. Why is the infinitive governed by the word it limits ? 
The infinitive is so governed, because this word controls or 
determines its Mood, 

26. Give and explain an illustration. In the expression 
" The orator wishes to speak," "wishes " governs " to speak," 
because it controls or determines its Mood, 

27. Give another illustration. 

28. What is Government ? 

29. What is the ninth point of Government ? The ninth 
point is the Government of the object oy the preposition 
according to Eule XV. 

30. Why is the object governed by the preposition ? The 
object is so governed, because the preposition controls or 
determines its case. 

31. Give an illustration. In the expression " The wag- 
oner came into town," " town " is governed by "into," because 
into controls or determines its case. 

32. Give another illustration. 

33. What is Government ? 



188 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

LESSON LXXVIII. 

Syntax Continued. — Eelations.— Limitation. 

1. How many points of Limitation are there ? There are 
nine points of Limitation. 

2. What is the first point of Limitation ? The first point 
is the Limitation of the noun or pronoun by the adjective 
according to Rule IV. 

3. Why does the adjective limit the noun or pronoun ? 
The adjective limits the noun or pronoun, because it reduces 
it from a general to a particular meaning. 

4. Give and explain an example. In the expression 
"Chestnut tree," "chestnut" limits "tree," because it 
reduces "tree" from its general to a particular meaning or 
a particular class of trees. 

5. Give another illustration. In the expression " Blind 
horse," " horse " alone applies to all horses but the adjective 
" blind " limits the meaning to a particular class of horses. 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. What is Limitation ? 

8. What is the second point of Limitation ? The second 
point is the limitation of the noun or pronoun by the parti- 
ciple according to Rule IV. 

9. Why does the participle limit the noun or pronoun? 
The participle limits the noun or pronoun, because it reduces 
it from a general to a particular meaning. 

10. Give and explain an example. In the sentence "The 
man wearing the tall hat is the Governor," " man " applies 
to a vast number but the participle "wearing" limits it, 
because it reduces " man " from its general meaning to a 
particular person. 

11. Give another illustration. The man wearing the 
sword is the Marshal. 

12. Give another illustration. 

13. What is Limitation? 

14. What is the third point of Limitation ? The third 



PASSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 189 

point is the limitation of the noun or pronoun by the posses- 
sive according to Eule VII. 

15. Why does the possessive limit the noun or pronoun ? 
The possessive limits the noun or pronoun, because it reduces 
it from a general to a special or particular meaning. 

16. Illustrate. The word "temple" is a very general term, 
applying to all temples, but, in " Solomon's temple," it is 
limited by the possessive to a particular temple. 

17. Give and explain other examples. 

18. What is Limitation ? 

19. What is the fourth point of Limitation? The fourth 
point is the limitation of a noun or pronoun by the apposi- 
tive according to Eule VI. 

20. Why does the appositive limit another noun ? The 
appositive limits a noun or pronoun, because it reduces it 
from a general to a special or particular meaning. 

21. Illustrate. In the expression "Jones the orator," 
" Jones" may apply to many persons, but the appositive 
"orator" reduces it to an individual meaning. 

22. Give and explain another illustration. 

23. What is Limitation ? 

LESSON LXXIX. 

Syntax Continued.— Limitation Continued. 

1. What is the fifth point of Limitation ? The fifth point 
is the limitation of a word by the infinitive according to 
Eule VIII. 

2. Why does the infinitive limit another word? The 
infinitive limits another word, because it reduces the word 
from a general to a special or particular meaning. 

3. Illustrate. In the expression " He wishes," " wishes " 
may apply to any one of a thousand things, which "he" may 
wish to do, but, in the expression " He wishes to sing" the 
infinitive limits " wishes " from a thousand things, that he 
might have wished to do, to one thing, that he does wish to do. 

4. Give another illustration.. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. What is Limitation ? 

6. What is the sixth point of Limitation ? The sixth 
point is the limitation of the verb by the adverb according 
to Rule V. 

7. Why does the adverb limit the verb? The adverb 
limits the verb, because it reduces it from a general to a 
special or particular meaning. 

8. Illustrate. The wind blew southward. Here " blew " 
is general in its meaning, because there are a thousand 
directions, in which the wind might blow, but "southward " 
reduces " blew " to a particular direction and so limits it 
from a thousand to one. 

9. Give another illustration. 

10. What is Limitation ? 

11. What is the seventh point of Limitation ? The seventh 
point is the limitation of the participle by the dbverb 
according to Kule V. 

12. Why does the adverb limit the participle? The 
adverb limits the participle, because it reduces it from a 
general to a special or a particular meaning. 

13. Illustrate. Looking upward, he made a vow. Here 
" looking " is general, because it might be in any of a thou- 
sand directions, but " upward " limits it to one direction. 

14. Give and explain another example. 

15. What is Limitation ? 

16. What is the eighth point of Limitation ? The eighth 
point of Limitation is that of the adjective by the adverb 
according to Rule V. 

17. Why does the adverb limit the adjective ? The adverb 
limits the adjective, because it reduces it from a general to 
a special meaning. 

18. Illustrate. In the expression "Moderately rough," 
"rough" is a general term, applying to all varieties of 
roughness, but " moderately " limits it to one variety. 

19. Give another illustration. 

20. What is Limitation ? 

21. What is the ninth point of Limitation ? The ninth 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 191 

point is the limitation of the adverb by the adverb according 
to Rule V. 

22. Why does the adverb limit the adverb ? The adverb 
limits the adverb, because it reduces it from a general to a 
special or particular meaning. 

23. Illustrate. In the sentence "He reproved me very 
sharply" "sharply" is general, because it applies to all 
varieties of sharpness, but "very" limits it to a single 
variety. 

24. Give another illustration. 

25. What is Limitation ? 

LESSON LXXX. 

Syntax Continued.— -Connection. 

1. How many points of connection are there? There are 
nine points of connection. 

2. What is the first point of connection ? The first point 
is the connection of the predicates or subjects of two sen- 
tences or clauses by a conjunction or adverbial conjunction 
according to Rule I. 

3. Why do conjunctions and adverbial conjunctions prefer 
to connect the predicates or subjects of the sentences or 
clauses which they join ? Conjunctions and adverbial con- 
junctions prefer to connect the predicates or subjects of their 
sentences or clauses, because these are the principal elements. 

4. In connecting sentences or clauses, why does the con- 
junction or adverbial conjunction prefer to connect predi- 
cates? The conjunction or adverbial conjunction has this 
preference ; because the predicate or verb, which means the 
word, has always been considered the most important ivord 
of the sentence. 

5. Illustrate the Conjunction. In parsing the connected 
sentences "John catches fish and James kills birds," "and" 
prefers to connect "catches" and "kills" but it will con- 
nect the subjects " John " and " James " or, in some cases, 
"fish" and "birds." 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. . < 

6. G-ive other illustrations. 

7. When will the conjunction or adverbial conjunction 
always connect subjects? The conjunction or adverbial 
conjunction always connects subjects, when the subjects are 
emphatic or antithetical. 

8. Illustrate. John came into town but James did not. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. What is Connection ? 

11. When will they always connect predicates ? Conjunc- 
tions or adverbial conjunctions will always connect predi- 
cates, when these are emphatic or antithetical. 

12. Illustrate. John walked but James rode to town. 

13. Give other illustrations. 

14. When may they connect the objective or one of the 
other subordinate elements in their sentences? Conjunc- 
tions or adverbial conjunctions may connect the objective 
or one of the other subordinate elements in their sentences, 
when these are emphatic or antithetical. 

15. Illustrate. John killed the lion and James killed the 
hear. 

16. Give other illustrations. 

17. What is the second point of Connection ? The second 
point is the connection of phrases by the conjunction accord- 
ing to Eule I. 

18. Illustrate. Is he going to ride or to walk ? Will you 
stay in London or in Edinburgh ? 

19. Explain the examples just given. The conjunction 
might be considered as connecting the principal verbs of 
these sentences but they here and often elsewhere connect 
phrases only. 

20. Give other illustrations. 

21. What is the third point of Connection ? The third 
point is the connection of words by conjunctions according 
to Eule I. 

22. Illustrate. Hither and thither. John and James are 
walking up and down. It was just in and out, in and out 
all day. To and/ro, to and/ro, to and/W? ; John, why don't 
you sit down ? 



PARSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 193 

23. Explain this use of the conjunction. Here the con- 
junction may be considered as connecting subjects or verbs 
but it is letter to parse it as connecting the ivords, between 
which it stands. 

24. Give and explain other examples. 

25. "What is Connection ? 

26. What is the fourth point of connection ? The fourth 
point is the connection of the subordinate clause, with the 
principal clause by the pronominal conjunction or connec- 
tive according to Kule III. 

27. Illustrate. John took what I gave him. John takes 
whatever I give him. The orator, who spoke so well, was 
Cicero. 

28. Explain these examples. " What" " whatever " and 
" who " connect their clauses but cannot be said to connect 
the subjects or predicates, as adverbial conjunctions do. 

29. Write other illustrations. 

LESSON LXXXI. 

Syntax Continued. — Connection Continued. 

1. What is the fifth point of Connection? The fifth 
point is the connection of the objective case to a noun by the 
preposition according to Eule II. 

2. Illustrate this. John of Boston. Apple of discord. 
Bond of union. 

3. Explain these examples. The preposition connects its 
object with a noun in these examples, because the preposi- 
tional phrase limits the noun. 

4. Give and explain other illustrations. 

5. What is the sixth point of Connection ? The sixth point 
is the connection of the objective case with a verb by the 
preposition according to Eule II. 

6. Illustrate. He came to town. Caesar marches on 
Eome. They wished for day. 

7. Explain these examples. Here the preposition con- 



194 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

nects its object to the verb, because the prepositional phrase 
limits the verb. 

8. Give and explain other examples. 

9. What is Connection ? 

10. What is the seventh point of Connection ? The seventh 
point is the connection of the objective case to a participle 
according to Rule II. 

11. Illustrate. John having killed the lion with an axe 
went home. Running to the office, he called the doctor. 

12. Explain these illustrations. Here the prepositions 
with and to connect their objects to the participles, because 
the prepositional phrases limit the participles. 

13. Give and explain other illustrations. 

14. What is Connection ? 

15. What is the eighth point of Connection ? The eighth 
point is the connection of the objective case to the adjective 
by the preposition according to Rule II. 

16. Illustrate. The sun was bright for one day. Good 
for nothing. Black with rage. 

17. Explain these examples. Here the preposition con- 
nects its object to the adjectives ; because the prepositional 
phrase, as an adverbial element, limits them. 

18. Give other illustrations. 

19. What is Connection ? 

20. What is the ninth point of Connection? The ninth 
point is the connection of the objective case with the adverb 
according to Rule II. 

21. Illustrate. He acted imprudently to an extreme. He 
peered forward watchfully from fear. He left hurriedly 
from fright. 

22. Explain these examples. Here the preposition con- 
nects its objects with the adverbs ; .because the prepositional 
phrase, as an adverbial element, limits them. 

23. Give other illustrations. 

24. What is Connection in Grammar ? 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 195 

LESSON LXXXII. 

Syntax Continued. — Limitation Continued. 

1. What is the first point of Limitation ? 

2. Illustrate and give the rule. 

3. What is the second point? 

4. Illustrate and give the rule. 

5. What is the third point ? 

6. Illustrate and give the rule. 

7. What is the fourth point ? 

8. Illustrate and give the rule. 

9. What is the fifth point? 

10. Illustrate and give the rule. 

11. What is the sixth point? 

12. Illustrate and give the rule. 

13. What is the seventh point ? 

14. Illustrate and give the rule. 

15. What is the eighth point ? 

16. Illustrate and give the rule. 

17. What is the ninth point ? 

18. Illustrate and give the rule. 

LESSON LXXXIII. 
Syntax Continued. — Government Continued. 

1. Give the first point of Government. 

2. Illustrate and give the rule. 

3. Give the second point. 

4. Illustrate and give the rule. 

5. Give the third point. 

6. Illustrate and give the rule. 

7. Give the fourth point. 

8. Illustrate and give the rule. 

9. Give the fifth point. 

10. Illustrate and give the rule. 

11. Give the sixth point. 



196 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

12. Illustrate and give the rule. 

13. Give the seventh point. 

14. Illustrate and give the rule. 

15. Give the eighth point. 

16. Illustrate and give the rule. 

17. Give the ninth point. 

18. Illustrate and give the rule. 

LESSON LXXXIV. 

Syntax Continued.— Connection Continued. 

1. Give the first point of Connection, 

2. Illustrate and give the rule. 

3. Give the second point. 

4. Illustrate and give the rule. 

5. Give the third point. 

6. Illustrate and give the rule. 

7. Give the fourth point. 

8. Illustrate and give the rule. 

9. Give the fifth point. 

10. Illustrate and give the rule. 

11. Give the sixth point. 

12. Illustrate and give the rule. 

13. Give the seventh point. 

14. Illustrate and give the rule. 

15. Give the eighth point. 

16. Illustrate and give the rule. 

17. Give the ninth point. 

18. Illustrate and give the rule. 

LESSON LXXXV. 

Syntax Continued. — Limitation Continued. 
Give the nine points of Limitation with rules. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 197 

LESSON LXXXVI. 

Syntax Continued. — Government Continued. 
Give the nine points of Government with rules. 

LESSON LXXXVII. 

Syntax Continued. — Connection Continued. 
Give the nine points of Connection with rules. 

LESSON LXXXVIII. 

Syntax Continued. — Government, Limitation and 
Connection Continued. 

Give the entire twenty-seven points of Syntactical Gov- 
ernment, Limitation and Connection, over and over until 
they are mastered. 

LESSON LXXXIX. 

Syntax Continued. — Rules of Syntax. 

1. Give Kule I of Syntax. Conjunctions connect predi- 
cates, subjects, words, phrases or clauses. 

2. Illustrate. John rides and James walks. John, 
James and Joseph can read Virgil. In city and in country 
and at home he is the same. Jacob will come when his 
work is done. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. Give Eule II. A preposition shows the relation of its 
object to the word, whose meaning the prepositional phrase 
limits. 

5. Illustrate. He died in hope. The bird in the cage. 
Black with rage. 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. Give Rule III. Connective pronouns connect the pro- 
nominal or relative clause with the principal clause. 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. Illustrate. The man, who has on the white hat, is the 
leader. I receive whatever he bestows. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. Give Rule IV. An adjective or participle limits its 
noun or pronoun down from a general to a particular 
meaning. 

11. Illustrate. The elephant, seizing his keeper with his 
trunk, set him on his own back. A chestnut tree. A New 
York man. The green and leafy tree. 

12. Give other illustrations. 

13. Give Rule V. An adverb limits its verb, adjective, 
participle or adverb from a general to a special or particular 
meaning. 

14. Illustrate. He laughed heartily. His salary is im- 
mensely large. He is esteemed very highly. 

15. Give other illustrations. 

16. Give Rule VI. If the limiting noun follows its base, 
it is governed by the base, required by it to be in the same 
case and called the appositive. 

17. Illustrate. Cicero the orator. John the blacksmith. 

18. Give other illustrations. 

19. Give Rule VII. If the limiting noun or pronoun 
precedes its base, it is governed by the base, required by it 
to be in the possessive case and called the possessive. 

20. Illustrate. Solomon's temple was destroyed. The 
general's horse was killed. 

21. Give other illustrations. 

22. Give Rule VIII. An infinitive not used as a noun is 
governed by the word, whose meaning the infinitive phrase 
limits, and is required by it to be in the infinitive mood. 

23. Illustrate. John wishes to learn. Awful to think of* 
Hard to get. 

24. Give other illustrations. 

25. Give Rule IX. The subject is governed by its verb 
and required by it to be in the nominative case. 

26. Illustrate. John runs. The orator speaks rapidly. 

27. Give other illustrations. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 199 

28. Give Eule X. A verb is governed by its subject and 
required by it to be in the same number and person. 

29. Illustrate. He runs. They run. 

30. Give other illustrations. 

31. Give Eule XI. A verb, having several singular subjects 
connected by and, is governed by them and required by 
them to be in the plural. 

32. Illustrate. John, James, William and Joseph run. 

33. Give other illustrations. 

LESSOK" XC. 

Syntax Continued.— Rules oe Syntax Continued. 

1. Give Eule XII. A verb, having several singular sub- 
jects connected by or or nor, is governed by them and 
required by them to be in the singular. 

2. Illustrate. John, James, William or Joseph runs, 
Sarah or Mary is singing. Either John, Samuel or Joseph 
carries the mail. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. Give Eule XIII. A verb ; whose subject is a collective 
noun, signifying many as one whole; is governed by it and 
required by it to be in the singular. 

5. Illustrate. The crowd rushes. The army is coming 
home. 

6. Give other illustrations. 

7. Give Eule XIV. A verb ; whose subject is a collective 
noun, signifying many as individuals ; is governed by it and 
required by it to be in the plural. 

8. Illustrate. The crowd (individuals') rush. The army 
(individuals') scatter through the country. The army are 
coming home. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. Give Eule XV. The object of a verb, participle or 
preposition is governed by it and required by it to be in the 
objective case. 

11. Illustrate. He killed the lion. Killing lions is dan- 
gerous. He struck the lion on the head. 



200 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

12. Give other illustrations. 

13. Give Eule XVI. A pronoun is governed by its ante- 
cedent or subsequent and required by it to be the same gen- 
der, person and number. 

14. Illustrate. The man, iv7io came to town, was a robber. 
John hurt his finger. 

15. Give other illustrations. 

16. Give Eule XVII. A pronoun, having several singular 
antecedents or subsequents connected by and, is governed 
by them and required by them to be in the plural. 

17. Illustrate. John, James and William say, that they 
cannot read Virgil. Joseph and William are washing their 
hands. 

18. Give other illustrations. 

19. Give Rule XVIII. A pronoun, having several ante- 
cedents or subsequents in the singular connected by or or 
nor, is governed by them and required by them to be in the 
singular. 

20 Illustrate. John, James or William says, he cannot 
read Virgil. Joseph or William is washing his hands. A 
dog, a horse or an ox knows his master. 

21. Give other illustrations. 

22. Give Rule XIX. A pronoun; whose antecedent or 
subsequent is a collective noun, signifying many as one 
whole ; is governed by it and required by it to be in the 
singular. 

23. Illustrate. The crowd rejects its leader. The army 
opposes its general. 

24. Give other illustrations. 

25. Give Rule XX. A pronoun ; whose antecedent or sub- 
sequent is a collective noun, signifying many as individuals ; 
is governed by it and required by it to be in the plural. 

26. Illustrate. The crowd reject their leader. The army 
oppose their general. 

27. Give other illustrations. 

28. Give Rule XXI. A noun or pronoun used indepen- 
dently has no relation of government to the predicate of the 
sentence and is in the absolute case. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 201 

29. Illustrate. John, come here ! Your money, where is 
it? 

30. Give other illustrations. 

31. Give Rule XXII. Interjections sustain no relations 
to the other words or elements of their sentences. 

32. Illustrate. Oh, how love I thy law ! Ah, what music ! 

33. Give other illustrations. 

34. What is a rule of syntax ? A rule of syntax is a state- 
ment of the relations, which the words or elements of a 
sentence sustain to each other. 

LESSON XCI. 
Syntax Continued. — Rules oe Syntax Continued. 

In this lesson let the pupil copy off and then drill himself 
in the Rules of Syntax until they are completely memorized, 
dividing them into three lessons. 



SUPPLEMENT TO PART SECOND. 
LESSON XOII. 

The Verb Continued. — The So-called Subjunctive 
Mood. 

There is no form in English for the subjunctive mood and 
the conjugation and inflection of the conditional clause 
which is sometimes called the subjunctive mood takes up 
too much room to be put into the body of the text, hence its 
insertion here. The following then are the paraphrases 
which in English are used for the subjunctive mood. 

Verb To Be. 

Present Tense, — First Form, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am, 1. If we are, 

2. If you are, 2. If you are, 

3. If he is; 3. If they are. 



202 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present Tense, — Second Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If you be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be ; 3. If they be. 



Present Tense.- 
Singular. 

1. If I can or must be, 

2. If you can or must be, 

3. If he can or must be; 



Third Form. 

Plural. 

1. If we can or must be, 

2. If you can or must be, 

3. If they can or must be. 



Present Perfect Tense. — First Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been, 1. If we have been, 

2. If you have been, 2. If you have been, 



3. If he has been 



3. If they have been. 



Present Perfect Tense. — Second Form. 



Singular. 

1. If I can or must have 

been, 

2. If you can or must have 

been, 

3. If he can or must have 

been; 



Plural. 

1. If we can or must have 

been, 

2. If you can or must have 

been, 

3. If they can or must have 

been. 



Past Tense. — First Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I was, 1. If we were, 

2. If you were, 2. If you were, 

3. If he was ; 3. If they were. 



Past Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I were, 

2. If you were, 

3. If he were ; 



Past Tense. 



1. Were I, 

2. Were you, 

3. Were he ; 



■Second Form. 
Plural. 

1. If we were, 

2. If you were, 

3. If they were. 

-Third Form. 
Plural. 

1. Were we, 

2. Were ye or you, 

3. Were they. 



PASSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 203 

Past Tense. — Fourth Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I should be, 1. If we should be, 

2. If you should be, 2. If you should be, 

3. If he should be ; 3. If they should be. 

Past Tense.— Fifth Form 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Should I be, 1. Should we be, 

2. Should you be, 2. Should you be, 

3. Should he be ; 3. Should they be. 

Past Perfect Tense. — First Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 

2. If you had been, 2. If you had been, 

3. If he had been; 3. If they had been. 

Past Perfect Tense. — Second Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I could have been, 1. If we could have been, 

2. If you could have been, 2. If you could have been, 

3. If he could have been ; 3. If they could have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. — Third Form,. 





Singular. Plural. 


1. 


Could L have been, 1. Could we have been, 


2. 


Could you have been, 2. Could ye or you have 


3. 


Could he have been ; been, 




3. Could they have been. 




Future Tense. 




Singular. Plural. 


1. 


If I shall be, 1. If we shall be, 


2. 


If you will be, 2. If you will be, 


3. 


If he will be ; 3. If they will be. 



Future Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been, 1. If we shall have been, 

2. If you will have been, 2. If you will have been, 

3. If he will have been ; 3. If they will have been. 



204 english geammak. 

Verb 

Active Voice. 

Present Tense. — First Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If you love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he loves ; 3. If they love. 






Present Tense. — Second Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If you love, 2. If you love, 
2. If he love ; 3. If they love. 

Present Tense. — Third Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I may, can or must 1. If we can love, 

love, 2. If you can love, 

2. If you can love, 3. If they can love. 

3. If he can love ; 

Present Perfect Tense. — First Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have loved, 1. If we have loved, 

2. If you have loved, 2. If you have loved, 

3. If he has loved ; 3. If they have loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. — Second Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I can have loved, 1. If we can have loved, 

2. If you can have loved, 2. If you can have loved, 

3. If he can have loved ; 3. If they can have loved. 

Past Tense. — First Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If you loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved ; 3. If they loved. 



PARSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 205 

To Love. 

Passive Voice. 

Present Tense. — First Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am loved, 1. If we are loved, 

2. If you are loved, 2. If you are loved, 

3. If he is loved ; 3. If they are loved. 





Present Tense.- 


-Second Form. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


If I be loved, 


1. If we be loved, 


2. 


If you be loved, 


2. If you be loved, 


3. 


If he be loved; 


3. If they be loved 



Present Tense. — Third Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I can be loved, 1. If we can be loved, 

2. If you can be loved, 2. If you can be loved, 

3. If he can be loved ; 3. If they can be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. — First Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been loved, 1. If we have been loved, 

2. If you have been loved, 2. If you have been loved, 

3. If he has been loved ; 3. If they have been loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. — Second Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I can have been loved, 1. If we can have been 

loved, 

2. If you can have been 2. If you can have been 

loved, loved, 

3. If he can have been 3. If they can have been 

loved ; loved. 

Past Tense.— First Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I was or were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If you were loved, 2. If you were loved, 

3. If he was or were loved ; 3. If they were loved. 



206 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Past Tense. — Second Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I should love, 1. If we should love, 

2. If you should love, 2. If you should love, 

3. If he should love; 3. If they should love. 

Past Tense. — Third Form. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. Should I love, 1. Should we love, 

2. Should you love, 2. Should you love, 

3. Should he love ; 3. Should they love. 

Past Perfect Tense. — First Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved, 

2. If you had loved, 2. If you had loved, 

3. If he had loved ; 3. If they had loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. — Second Form. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. Had I loved, 1. Had we loved, 

2. Had you loved, 2. Had you loved, 

3. Had he loved ; 3. Had they loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. — Third Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I should have loved, 1. If we should have loved, 

2. If you should have loved, 2. If you should have loved, 

3. If he should have loved ; 3. If they should have 

loved. 

Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall love, 1. If we shall love, 

2. If you will love, 2. If you will love, 

3. If he will love; 3. If they will love. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have loved, 1. If we shall have loved, 

2. If you will have loved, 2. If you will have loved, 

3. If he will have loved ; 3. If they will have loved. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 207 

Past Tense. — Second Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I should be loved, 1. If we should be loved, 

2. If you should be loved, 2. If you should be loved, 

3. If he should be loved ; 3. If they should be loved. 

Past Tense. — Third Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Should I be loved, 1. Should we be loved, 

2. Should you be loved, 2. Should you be loved, 

3. Should he be loved ; 3. Should they be loved. 

, Past Perfect Tense. — First Form, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been loved, 1. If we had been loved, 

2. If you had been loved, 2. If you had been loved, 

3. If he had been loved ; 3. If they had been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. — Second Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Had I been loved, 1. Had we been loved, 

2. Had you been loved, 2. Had you been loved, 

3. Had he been loved ; 3. Had they been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. — Third Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I should have been 1. If we should have been 

loved, loved, 

2. If you should have been 2. If you should have been 

loved, loved, 

3. If he should have been 3. If they should have been 

loved ; loved. 

Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall be loved, 1. If we shall be loved, 

2. If you will be loved, 2. If you will be loved, 

3. If he will be loved ; 3. If they will be loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been 1. If we shall have been 

loved, loved, 

2. If you will have been 2. If you will have been 

loved, loved, 

x3. If he will have been 3. If they will have been 

loved; loved. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

APPLICATION OF THE PRECEDING LESSONS. 
LESSON XCIII. 

Parsing. 

1. In order to be good grammarians, what must we know ? 
To be good grammarians, we must know in theory and in 
practice thirty-one things, the twenty-two rules or laws or 
principles of Syntax and the nine parts of speech. 

2. How are these to be learned? These rules of syntax 
and the nine parts of speech are to be learned by thorough 
drilling in the exercises of parsing and sentence-analysis. 

3. What is parsing? Parsing a word consists of four 
things : first, of telling what part of speech it is ; second, of 
giving its properties; third, of showing its relation or rela- 
tions to other words and fourth, of giving a rule for its 
relation or relations. 

4. To what parts of grammar does parsing belong? 
Parsing belongs to etymology and syntax combined. 

5. How much of parsing belongs to etymology? The 
first half of parsing, telling a word's part of speech and 
giving its properties, belongs to etymology. 

6. Why do these belong to etymology ? These exercises 
belong to etymology, because etymology treats of these 
things. 

7. How much of parsing belongs to syntax? The last 
half of parsing, showing the word's relations and giving the 
rule, belongs to syntax. 

8. Why do these belong to syntax ? Showing the rela- 
tions and giving the rule belong to syntax, because syntax 
treats of these subjects. 

9. What is a scheme for parsing ? A scheme for parsing 
is a list of brief questions concerning a particular part of 
speech, all of which in parsing a word must be completely 
answered. 

10. Where are the answers found? The various defini- 
tions throughout the book constitute answers to these 
brief questions or interrogatories. 



PARSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 209 

LESSON XCIV. 

Parsing Continued. — The Noun. 

Give the scheme for Parsing the Noun. 

1. A noun? Why? 

2. Common or Proper ? Why ? 

3. Person? Why? 

4. Gender? Why? 

5. Number? Why? 

6. Concrete or Abstract ? Why ? 

7. Primitive or Derivative ? Why ? 

8. Collective? Why? 

9. Form the plural. 

10. Decline it. 

11. Case ? For what two reasons ? 

12. Form Possessives. 

13. Kelations of Limitation ? Why ? 

14. Eule? 

15. Eelations of Government ? Why ? 

16. Eule? 

LESSON XCV. 

Parsing Continued. — The Interjection. 

Give the scheme of Parsing the Interjection. 

1. An Interjection? Why? 

2. Eequires what mark ? 

3. Where does the mark come ? 

4. Eule? 

LESSON XCVI. 

Parsing Continued.— The Adverb. 

Give the scheme of Parsing the Adverb. 

1. An Adverb ? Why ? 

2. Kind? Why? 

3. How are adverbs compared ? 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Compare it. 

5. What degree ? 

6. Relations of Limitation ? Why ? 

7. Eule? 

LESSON XCVII. 

Parsing Continued. — The Pronoun. 

Give the scheme for Parsing the Pronoun. 

1. A Pronoun? Why? 

2. Personal, Adjective or Connective ? Why ? 

3. Kind? Why? 

4. Gender, Person and Number ? Why ? 

5. Antecedent or Subsequent ? Why ? 

6. First Kelation of Government ? Why ? 

7. Kule? 

8. Decline it. 

9. Case ? For what two reasons ? 

10. Second Relation of Government ? Why ? 

11. Kule? 

12. What other relations ? 

LESSON XCVIII. 

Parsing Continued.— The Conjunction. 

Give the scheme for Parsing the Conjunction. 

1. Conjunction ? Why ? 

2. Co-ordinate or Subordinate ? Why ? 

3. Copulative, Disjunctive or Correlative? Why? 

4. Connects what Subjects, Predicates, Words, Phrases 
or Clauses ? 

5. Rule? 

LESSON XCIX. 

Parsing Continued. — The Participle. 

Give the scheme for Parsing the Participle. 

1. A Participle? Why? 

2. From what verb 



PARSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 211 

3. Principal parts ? 

4. Which participle ? Why ? 

5. How formed or ends how ? 

6. Compare it. 

7. What properties of a Verb ? 

8. What properties of an Adjective or Noun ? 

9. Relations of Limitation ? Why ? 

10. Rule? 

11. Relations of Government? Why? 

12. Rule? 

LESSON C. 

Parsing Continued. — The Preposition. 

Give the scheme for Parsing the Preposition. 

1. A Preposition? Why? 

2. Object? Why? 

3. Shows Relation of its Object to what Noun ? Why ? 

4. Shows Relation of its Object to what Verb, Adjective, 
Participle or Adverb? Why? 

5. When omitted ? Why ? 

6. Rule? 

LESSON CI. 

Parsing Continued.— The Verb. 

Give the scheme for Parsing the Verb. 

1. Verb? Why? 

2. From what ? 

3. Principal Parts ? 

4. Regular or Irregular? Why? 

5. Transitive or Intransitive ? Why ? 

6. Voice? Why? 

7. Mood? Why? 

8. Tense? Why? 

9. Conjugate that Tense. 

10. Number and Person ? Why ? 

11. First Relation of Government ? Why ? 

12. Rule? 

13. Second Relation of Government ? Why ? 

14. Rule? 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON CII. 
Parsing Continued.— The Adjective. 

Give the scheme for. Parsing the Adjective. 

1. An Adjective ? Why ? 

2. Descriptive or Definitive ? Why ? 

3. Degree? Why? 

4. Rule for Comparing Adjectives ? 

5. How compared ? 

6. Compare it. 

7. Relation of Limitation ? Why ? 
. 8. Rule? 

LESSON OIII. 

Parsing Continued. 
Repeat the first three of the schemes for Parsing. 

LESSON CIV. 

Parsing Continued. 
Repeat the second three of the schemes for Parsing. 

LESSON CV. 

Parsing Continued. 
Repeat the third three of the schemes for Parsing. 

LESSON CVI. 

Parsing Continued. 

Repeat all the schemes for Parsing and review this les- 
son over and over, until it is mastered. 

LESSON CVII. 

Parsing Continued.— The Noun. 

In the sentence " Generals command.", parse " Generals " 
according to the scheme for parsing the noun. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 213 

1. A Noun ? Why ? " Generals " is a noun, because it 
is the name of something. 

2. Common or Proper ? Why ? " Generals " is a com- 
mon noun, because it is a general name distinguishing any 
object in an entire class. 

3. Person? Why? "Generals" is of the third person, 
because it signifies the person spoken of. 

4. Gender ? Why ? " General " is of the masculine 
gender, because it signifies the name of a male. 

5. Number ? Why ? " Generals " is of the plural num- 
ber, because it shows that the noun or pronoun means more 
than one. 

6. Concrete or Abstract ? Why ? " Generals " is a con- 
crete noun, because it is the name not of a quality but of a 
tangible substance. 

7. Primitive or Derivative ? Why ? " Generals " is 
primitive, because it is not derived from any other word. 

8. Collective? Why? "Generals" is not a collective 
noun, because it does not denote a multitude. 

9. Form plural. " Generals" forms its plural by adding 
the letter s to the singular, because the sound of its last 
letter will unite with the sound of s. 

10. Decline it. 



lar. Plural. 

Nom. General, JSfom. Generals, 

Poss. General's, Poss. Generals', 

Obj. General; Obj. Generals. 

11. Case? For what two reasons? "Generals" is in 
the nominative case, because it is found there in declining 
it and because it is the condition of a noun or pronoun as 
subject or predicate of a proposition. 

12. Form its Possessives. Its possessive case singular is 
General' 's. and its possessive case plural is Generals'; because 
the possessive singular is formed by adding to the nomi- 
native, the apostrophe (') and the letter s but the possessive 
plural the apostrophe only when the noun ends in s. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When the noun does not end in s, the possessive plural is 
formed like the singular. 

13. Kelation of Limitation ? Why? " Generals " has no 
relation of limitation. 

14. Rule? No rule. 

15. Relations of Government? Why? ft Generals " sus- 
tains to the verb "command" the relation of government by it ; 
because " command " controls or determines one of its prop- 
erties, case. " Generals " has also to " command " the rela- 
tion of government over it ; because it controls or determines 
two of the verb's properties, number and person. 

16. Rules? The first relation is according to Rule IX, 
" The subject is governed by its verb and required by it to be 
in the nominative case," and the second relation is according 
to Rule X, " The verb is governed by its subject and 
required by it to be in the same number and person." 

17. Has " Generals " any other relations of government, 
limitation or connection ? 

LESSON CVIII. 

Parsing Continued. — The Interjection. 

In the sentence " Oh, how love I thy law ! " parse " Oh " 
according to the scheme for parsing the interjection. 

1. An Interjection ? Why ? " Oh " is an interjection, 
because it is a word thrown in between the elements of a 
sentence to express the emotion of the speaker. 

2. Requires what mark ? " Oh " requires an exclamation 
point (!) after it. 

3. Where does the mark come? The exclamation point 
immediately follows either the interjection or those words 
with which it is closely connected. Here the point comes 
after the following words; because they are so closely con- 
nected with the interjection, that they cannot be separated 
from it. 

4. Rule ? Rule XXII, " Interjections sustain no relations 
to the other words or elements of their sentences." 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 215 

LESSON CIX. 

Parsing Continued. — The Adverb. 

In the sentence " He rides homeward," parse " homeward " 
by the proper scheme. 

1. An Adverb ? Why ? " Homeward " is an adverb; be- 
cause it is a word used to limit the meaning of a verb, 
adjective, participle or adverb. 

2. Kind ? Why ? " Homeward " is a local adverb ; be- 
cause it limits its word by reducing its general meaning to 
a particular place. 

3. How are adverbs compared ? In ascending compar- 
ison, some monosyllabic adverbs are compared by adding r or 
er and st or est and polysyllabic adverbs by prefixing more 
and most to the positive but, in descending comparison, all 
adverbs are compared by prefixing less and least to the posi- 
tive. Some adverbs are irregular and some do not admit of 
comparison. 

4. Compare this adverb. If it admits of comparison, it is 
compared thus : positive, homeward ; comparative, more 
homeward; superlative, most homeward and pos., home- 
ward ; comp., less homeward ; sup., least homeward. 

5. What degree ? "Homeward" is in the positive degree. 

6. Relation of limitation ? Why ? " Homeward " has 
the relation of limitation to the verb "rides," because it 
reduces this verb from a general to a special or a particular 
meaning. 

7. Rule? Rule V. "An adverb limits its verb, adjective, 
participle or adverb from a general to a special or particular 
meaning." 

LESSON CX. 

Parsing Continued. — The Pronoun. 

In this sentence "John hurt his foot," parse "His" by 
the proper scheme. 

1. A Pronoun ? Why ? " His " is a pronoun, because 
it is a word used to stand instead of a noun. 



216 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

2. Personal, Adjective or Connective ? Why ? " His " 
is a personal pronoun, because it is one of those pronouns, 
which have a separate form for each of the three persons, 
and because it always represents the same person. 

3. Kind? Why? "His "is a simple personal, because 
it is not formed by the addition of self or selves. 

4. Gender, number and person? Why? "His" is of 
the masculine gender, third person and singular number, 
because it is controlled in these three properties by its ante- 
cedent " John." 

5. Antecedent or Subsequent ? Why ? " John " is the 
antecedent of " His," because it is the noun instead of which 
" his " stands. 

6. First relation of government? Why? "His" sus- 
tains to its antecedent " John " the relation of government 
by it ; because the antecedent John controls or determines 
three of its properties, person, gender and number. 

7. Eule? Eule XVI. "A pronoun is governed by its 
antecedent or subsequent and required by it to be in the 
same gender, number and person." 

8. Decline " His." 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. He, Norn. They, 

Poss. His, Poss. Their or theirs, 

Obj. Him. Obj. Them. 

9. Case ? For what two reasons ? " His " is in the possessive 
case; first, because it is found there in declining it, and 
second, because it is the condition of a noun or pronoun as 
owner or possessor. 

10. Second relation of government ? Why ? " His " has 
to the noun " foot" the relation of government by it, because 
the noun " foot " controls or determines one of its proper- 
ties namely case and requires it to be in the possessive case. 

11. Eule? Eule VII. "If a limiting noun or pronoun 
precedes its base, it is governed by this base, required by it 
to be in the possessive case and called the possessive." 

12. What other relations ? 



PARSING OK ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 217 

LESSON CXI. 

Parsing Continued. — The Conjunction. 

In the sentence " Caesar commanded the army but Cicero 
swayed the Senate.", parse " But " according to the proper 



1. A Conjunction? Why? "But" is a conjunction; 
because it is a word used to connect words, phrases, clauses 
or sentences.' 

2. Co-ordinate or Subordinate ? Why ? " But " is a co- 
ordinate conjunction ; because it is used to connect words, 
phrases, clauses or sentences of the same kind or class. 

3. Copulative, Disjunctive or Correlative ? Why ? " But " 
is a disjunctive or adversative conjunction, because it joins 
two sentences by expressing opposition of meaning. 

4. Connects what words, phrases, subjects or predicates ? 
" But " joins the two members of its sentence and, in order 
to do this, it connects either the two predicates or the two 
subjects. Here let it connect the subjects, because they are 
used with emphasis. 

5. Rule ? Rule I. " Conjunctions connect subjects, pred- 
icates, words, phrases or clauses." 

LESSON CXII. 

Parsing Continued. — The Participle. 

In this sentence " Having loved His own, He loved them 
unto the end.", parse "Having loved " by the proper scheme. 

1. A Participle? Why? "Having loved" is a parti- 
ciple ; because it is a mood or form of the verb, which has 
also the form and properties of an adjective or noun. 

2. From what verb? "Having loved" comes from the 
verb To Love. 

3. Principal parts ? Present, love ; past, loved ; past par- 
ticiple, loved. 

4. Which Participle? Why? "Having loved" is a 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

compound past participle, active voice, and denotes the com- 
pletion of action, being or state in the present time. 

5. How formed or ends how ? The compound past parti- 
ciple is formed by placing having or having been before the 
past or having been before the present participle. 

6. Compare it. " Having loved " does not admit of com- 
parison. 

7. What properties of a verb? "Having loved," like 
most participles, has four properties of a verb ; voice, time, 
action and the property of being transitive. It is also in, 
what might be called, the Participial Mood. It really has 
five properties of a verb. 

8. What property of an adjective or noun ? " Having 
loved " has no property of a noun and but one property of 
an adjective, that of modifying or limiting a noun. It does 
not possess the property of comparison. 

9. Eelation of limitation ? Why ? " Having loved " has 
the relation of limitation to the pronoun " He," because it 
reduces this word from a general to a special or particular 
meaning. 

10. Eule? "Having loved" limits "He" according to 
Eule IV. "An adjective or participle limits its noun or pro- 
noun down from a general to a special or particular mean- 
ing." 

11. Relations of government ? Why ? " Having loved " 
has the relation of government over its object " own," because 
the participle determines or controls the case of this word. 

12. Eule? This relation exists according to Eule XV. 
" The object of a verb, participle or preposition is governed 
by it and required by it to be in the objective case." 

LESSON CXIII. 

Parsing Continued.— The Preposition. 

In the sentence "Hannibal threw his javelin over the 
wall of Eome.", parse " Over " by the proper scheme for 
parsing. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 219 

1. A Preposition ? Why ? " Over " is a preposition ; 
because it is a word used to show the relation of its object 
to the word, which the prepositional phrase limits. 

2. Object ? Why ? " Wall " is its object. 

3. Shows the relation of its object to what noun ? Why ? 
" Over " does not show the relation of its object to any noun, 
because the prepositional phrase does not limit a noun and 
hence is not an adjective element. 

4. Shows the relation of its object to what verb, adjective, 
participle or adverb ? Why ? " Over " shows the relation 
of its object "wall" to the verb "threw," because the prepo- 
sitional phrase " over the wall " limits the meaning of this 
verb as an adverbial element. 

5. When omitted ? Why ? The preposition is omitted 
before words denoting measure, time, distance and value, 
because here the relation between the object and the antece- 
dent term of the relation is apparent without it. 

6. Eule? Kule II. "Prepositions show the relation of 
their objects to the words, whose meaning the prepositional 
phrase limits." 

LESSON CXIV. 

Parsing Continued. — The Verb. 

In this sentence " David killed the lion.", parse " Killed " 
by the proper scheme. 

1. A verb? Why ? " Killed " is a verb ; because it is a 
word, which expresses action, being or state. 

2. From what ? " Killed " comes from the verb To Kill. 

3. Principal parts ? Pres., kill ; past, killed ; past part., 
killed. 

4. Eegular or Irregular? Why? "Killed" is regular, 
because it forms its past tense and past participle by adding 
d or ed to the present indicative. 

5. Transitive or Intransitive ? Why ? " Killed " is a 
transitive verb, because it requires an object to complete its 
meaning. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. Voice? Why? "Killed" is in the active voice, 
because it represents its subject as acting. 

7. Mood ? Why ? " Killed " is in the indicative mood, 
because it expresses the abstract idea of the verb as a fact. 

8. Tense ? Why ? " Killed " is of the past tense ; because 
it expresses the action, being or state as going on in past 
time. 

9. Conjugate that tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I killed, 1. We killed, 

2. You killed, 2. You killed, 

3. He killed ; 3. They killed. 

10. Number and person ? Why ? " Killed " is of the 
third person and singular number, because it is controlled 
or governed by the subject "David " in these properties. 

11. First relation of government? Why? "Killed" sus- 
tains the relation of government to its subject " David," 
because its properties of number and person are determined 
by this word. 

12. Eule? According to Rule X, "The verb is governed 
by its subject and required by it to be in the same number 
and person." 

13. Second relation of government ? " Killed " has the 
relation of government over the object " lion," because it 
controls or governs this word in case. 

14. Eule ? Eule XV. " The object of a verb, participle 
or preposition is governed by it and required by it to be in 
the objective case." 

LESSON CXV. 

Parsing Continued. — The Adjective. 

In the sentence "Joseph writes with the blackest ink.", 
parse " Blackest " according to its scheme. 

1. An Adjective? Why? "Blackest" is an adjective, 
because it is a word attached to a noun to limit its meaning. 

2. Descriptive or Definitive ? Why ? " Blackest " is a 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 221 

descriptive adjective, because it limits the noun's meaning 
by expressing its qualities and thereby describing or defin- 
ing it. 

3. Degree? Why? "Blackest" is of the superlative 
degree; because it expresses the highest or lowest degree of 
the quality blackness, when several objects more than two 
are in the class. 

4. Eule for comparing adjectives ? In ascending com- 
parison, monosyllabic adjectives are compared by adding r or 
er and st or est and polysyllabic adjectives by prefixing more 
and most to the positive but, in descending comparison, all 
adjectives are compared by prefixing less and least to the 
positive. Some are compared irregularly and some do not 
admit of comparison. 

5. How compared ? " Black," being a monosyllable, is 
compared by adding r or er and st or est to the positive. 

6. Compare it. Pos., black ; comp., blacker ; sup., black- 
est. And pos., black ; comp., less black ; sup., least black. 

7. Relation of limitation? Why? " Blackest" has the 
relation of limitation to " ink"; because it reduces this word 
down from a general to a special or particular meaning or 
from many hinds of ink, that it might have been, to one hind, 
that it was. 

8. Rule ? Rule IV. " An adjective or participle limits its 
noun or pronoun from a general to a special or particular 
meaning." 

LESSON CXVI. 

Parsing Continued.— The Conjunctive Adverb or 
Adverbial Conjunction. 

In the sentence " You must all come when you are called.", 
parse " When " first as a conjunction according to its scheme 
of parsing and afterwards as an adverb limiting both predi- 
cates, "come" and " are called," according to the scheme for 
parsing the adverb. 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON CXVII. 

Parsing Continued.— The Connective Pronoun. 

In the sentence " We admire the great general ; who, in a 
war of seven years, conquered Gaul.", parse the connective 
pronoun "Who," first according to the scheme of parsing 
the conjunction and then according to the scheme of pars- 
ing the pronoun. 

1. A conjunction ? Why? "Who" is a conjunction, 
because it is a word used to connect clauses. 

2. Co-ordinate or subordinate? Why? "Who" is a 
subordinate conjunction, because it connects a subordinate 
clause with a principal clause. 

3. Copulative, disjunctive or correlative ? Why ? " Who " 
is neither of these, because subordinate connectives are not 
divided into these classes. 

4. Connects what subjects, predicates, words, phrases or 
clauses ? " Who " connects its clause, " who in seven years 
conquered Gaul," with the principal clause, "We admire 
the great general." 

5. Eule ? Eule III. " Connective pronouns connect the 
pronominal or relative clause with the principal clause." 

6. Here now parse " who " as a pronoun according to its 

SCHEME. 

LESSON CXVIII. 

Parsing Continued.— The Compound Eelative or 
Connective Pronoun. 

In the sentence "He took what I gave him.", parse "What." 
Separate "What" into its equivalents, "that which." 
After writing the sentence in full " He took that which I 
gave him," parse each word separately. First parse " that " 
by the scheme for the pronoun as below and then parse 
" which " by the same scheme and in the same way, making 
that the antecedent of which. 

1. A pronoun ? Why ? The antecedent part " That " is 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 223 

a pronoun, because it is a word used to stand instead of a 
noun. 

2. Personal, Adjective or Connective ? Why ? " That " 
is an adjective pronoun ; because it is a designative adjective, 
which represents a noun understood. 

3. Kind ? Why ? " That " is a demonstrative adjective 
pronoun, because it represents its antecedent or the noun 
understood with precision. 

4. Gender, Number and Person ? Why ? " That" is of 
the neuter gender, singular number and third person ; be- 
cause the antecedent or the noun, which it represents, is of 
that person, gender and number. 

5. Antecedent or Subsequent? Why? The antecedent 
of " that " is the noun thing or object understood, which it 
represents. 

6. First relation of government? Why? "That" is in 
the first place governed by the noun "thing" understood; 
because this noun controls or determines three of its prop- 
erties, person, gender and number. 

7. Eule ? Eule X VI. " A pronoun is governed by its 
antecedent or subsequent and required by it to be in the 
same gender, person and number." 

8. Decline it. 

Singular. Plural. 

Worn. That, Nom. Those, 

Poss. (wanting), Poss. {wanting'), 

Obj. That; ' Obj. Them. 

9. Case ? For what two reasons ? " That " is in the objec- 
tive case, because it is found there in declining it and 
because it is the condition of a pronoun as the object of the 
verb "took." 

10. Second relation of government? Why? The pro- 
noun "that" has a second relation of government, by 
"took"; because the verb "took" controls or determines 
the pronoun's case and requires it to be in the objective 
case. 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

11. Kule? Kule XV. "The object of a verb, participle 
or preposition is governed by it and required by it to be in 
the objective case." 

12. What other relations ? 

LESSON CXIX. 

Parsing Continued.— The Compound Connective 
Pronoun Continued. 

Here parse "Which" and repeat the last lesson, until 
classes become familiar with it. 

LESSON CXX. 

Parsing Continued. — The Compound Connective 
Pronoun Continued. 

In the sentence " He receives whomsoever I send.", parse 
"Whomsoever" by separating it into its equivalents any 
whom or him whom. 

LESSON CXXI. 

Parsing Continued. — Compound Connective Pronoun 
Continued. 

Parse the compound connective pronoun in the sentence 
" He will do whatever is right." 

LESSON CXXII. 

Parsing Continued.— The Infinitive as a Subject. 

In the sentence "To die for one's country is sweet.", 
parse " To Die " by the scheme for parsing a verb. 

1. A Verb ? Why ? " To Die " is a verb : because it is 
a word; which expresses action, being or state. 

2. From what ? " To die " comes from the verb To Die. 

3. Principal parts ? Pres., die ; past, died ; past parti- 
ciple, died. 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 225 

4. Kegular or Irregular ? Why ? " To Die " is a regular 
verb, because it forms its past tense and past participle by- 
adding d or ed to the present indicative. 

5. Transitive or Intransitive ? Why ? " To Die " is an 
intransitive verb, because it does not require an object to 
complete its meaning. 

6. Voice? Why ? " To Die" is in the active voice, be- 
cause it represents some indefinite subject as acting. 

7. Mood? Why? "To Die" is in the infinitive mood, 
because it expresses the abstract idea of the verb without 
any limitations of number or person and without affirmation. 

8. Tense ? Why ? " To Die " is of the present tense ; 
because it expresses the action, being or state as going on in 
present time. 

9. Number and person ? Why ? " To Die " has no 
number or person being infinitive. 

10. First relation of government ? Why ? " To Die," 
being used as a noun, is governed in the nominative case 
by its verb " Is "; because this verb determines or controls 
one of its properties, case. 

11. Eule? Eule IX. "The subject is governed by its 
verb and required by it to be in' the objective case." 

12. Second relation of government ? Why ? " To Die " 
has no second relation of government not being transitive. 

13. Eule ? No rule. 



LESSON CXXIII. 

Parsing Continued.— The Infinitive as an Adver- 
bial Element. 

In the sentence "The general ordered the army to march.", 
parse " To March." Parse these words like any other verb 
but recollect; that it is not used as a noun but as an 
adverbial phrase, limiting the verb " ordered," and, as it is 
governed in mood by this verb, it must be parsed according 
to Eule VIII. 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON CXXIV. 

Parsing Continued,— The Infinitive as an Adver- 
bial Element Continued. 

In the sentence " It is pleasant to live.", parse To Live as 
above, except that it limits the adjective " pleasant " instead 
of a verb. 



SELECTIONS FOE DEILLING IN PASSING. 

By the schemes for parsing, parse every word in these 
following selections. 

FIRST SELECTION. 

The Little Lord and the Farmer. 

A little lord, engaged in play, 
Carelessly threw his ball away ; 
So far beyond the brook it flew, 
His lordship knew not what to do. 

By chance there passed a farmer's boy, 
Whistling a tune in childish joy ; 
His frock was patched, his hat was old 
But his manly heart was very bold. 

" You, little chap, pick up my ball ;" 
His saucy lordship loud did call ; 
He thought it useless to be polite 
To one, whose clothes were in such a plight. 

"Do it yourself for want of me," 
Eeplied the boy quite manfully ; 
Then quietly he passed along, 
Whistling aloud his favorite song. 

His little lordship furious grew, 
For he was proud and hasty too ; 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 227 

" I'll break your bones," he rudely cries, 
While fire (did) flash from both his eyes. 

Now, heedless quite which way he took, 
He tumbled plump into the brook 
And, as he fell, he lost his bat 
And next he dropped his beaver hat. 

" Come help me out," enraged he cried 

But the sturdy farmer thus replied; 
" Alter your tone my little man 

'And then I'll help you all, I can." 

" There are few things ; I would not dare 
For gentlemen, who speak me fair, 
But, for rude words, I do not choose 
To wet my feet and soil my shoes." 

"Please help me out," his lordship said, 
" I'm sorry I was so ill-bred ;" 
"'Tis all forgot," replied the boy 
And gave his hand in honest joy. 

The offered hand his lordship took 
And soon came safely from the brook ; 
His looks were downcast and aside, 
For he felt ashamed of his silly pride. 

The farmer brought his ball and bat 
And wiped the wet from his dripping hat 
And mildly said, as he went away, 
" Remember the lesson you've learned to-day." 

" Be kind to all, you chance to meet 
In field or lane or crowded street ; 
Anger and pride are both unwise, 
Vinegar never catches flies." 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SECOND SELECTION. 

Looking to Jesus. 

! eyes, that are weary, and hearts, that are sore ; 
Look off unto Jesus and sorrow no more : 
The light of his countenance shineth so bright ; 
That, here as in heaven, there need be no night. 

When looking to Jesus, I go not astray ; 
My eyes are upon him, he shows me the way : 
The path may seem dark, as he leads me along, 
But, following Jesus, I cannot go wrong. 

Still looking to Jesus, oh ! may I be found, 
When Jordan's dark waters encompass me round ; 
They'll bear me away in his presence to be 
And see Him still nearer, whom always I see. 

Then, then I shall know the full beauty and grace 
Of Jesus my Lord, when I stand face to face ; 
Shall know, how his love went before me each day 
And wonder, that ever my eyes turned away. 

THIRD SELECTION. 

Redemption, 

He asked but all the heavenly choir stood mute 
And silence was in heaven. On man's behalf 
Patron or intercessor none appear'd : 
Much less ; that durst, upon his own head, draw 
The deadly forfeiture and ransom set. 
And now, without redemption, all mankind 
Must have been lost, adjudged to death and Hell 
By doom severe ; had not the Son of God, 
In whom the fulness dwells of love divine, 
His dearest mediation thus renew'd. 

" Father, thy word is pass'd, man shall find grace. 
And shall grace not find means ; that finds her way, 



PARSING OR ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 229 

The speediest of thy winged messengers, 

To visit all thy creatures and to all 

Comes unprevented, unimplored, unsought ? 

Happy for man, so coming ; he her aid 

Can never seek, once dead in sins and lost. 

Atonement for himself or offering meet, 

Indebted and undone, hath none to bring. 

Behold me then, me for him ; life for life 

I offer : on me let thine anger fall : 

Account me man ; I, for his sake, will leave 

Thy bosom and this glory next to thee, 

Freely put off, and for him lastly die 

Well pleased. On me let Death wreak all his rage : 

Under his gloomy power I shall not long 

Lie vanquished ; thou hast given me to possess 

Life in myself forever, by thee I live. 

Though now to Death I yield and am his due ; 

All, that of me can die : yet, that debt paid, 

Thou wilt not leave me in the loathsome grave 

His prey nor suffer my unspotted soul 

For ever, with corruption, there to dwell 

But I shall rise victorious and subdue 

My vanquisher, spoiled of his vaunted spoil. 

Death his death's wound shall then receive and stoop 

Inglorious, of his mortal sting disarm'd. 

1, through the ample air in triumph high, 

Shall lead Hell captive, maugre Hell, and show 

The powers of darkness bound. Thou, at the sight 

Pleased, out of Heaven shall look down and smile ; 

While, by thee raised, I ruin all my foes 

Death last and with his carcass glut the grave. 

Then, with the multitude of my redeem'd, 

Shall enter Heaven, long absent, and return, 

Father, to see thy face, wherein no cloud 

Of anger shall remain but peace assured 

And reconcilement : wrath shall be no more 

Thenceforth but in thy presence joy entire." 

— Paradise Lost, III, 217. 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FOURTH SELECTOR. 

Postquam id animum advertit, copias suas Caesar proxi- 
mum collem subducit equitatumque, qui sustinaret hostium 
impitum, misit. Ipse iterum in colle medio triplicem aciem 
instruxit legionum quatuor veteranarum ita ; ut supra se in 
summo jugo duas legiones, quas in Grallia citeriore proxime 
conscripserat, et omnia auxilia collocaret ac to tarn montem 
hominibus compleri et interea sarcinas in unum locum con- 
fessi et eum ab his, qui in superiore acie constiterant, muniri 
jussit. — Caesar's Commentaries, Booh I, Chapter 14. 



PAST THIED. 

SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 



LESSON I. 

General Definitions.— Government. 

1. What is Syntax ? Syntax is that part of Grammar ; 
which treats of the construction of the sentence by showing 
the Eelations, which exist among its elements. 

2. What is Eelation in Syntax ? Eelation in Syntax is 
that dependence, which one word or element has upon 
another. 

3. Illustrate. In the sentence "William reads.", these 
words are related, because they are dependent upon each 
other. In the sentence "John killed the lion.", these words 
are related, because they are dependent upon each other. 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. If a hundred words should be drawn from a box or 
wheel, like jurors' names or lottery tickets, and arranged 
just as drawn ; would they form a sentence ? Words arranged 
in this manner would not form a sentence. 

6. Why would they not form a sentence? Such words 
could not form a sentence, because they would not have or 
sustain the proper Eelations to each other. 

7. What then is Eelation in Syntax? Eelation in 
Syntax is that mutual dependence, which the words and 
elements of a sentence have upon each other. 

8. How many kinds of Eelations are there in Syntax ? 
There are three kinds of Eelations in Syntax; the Eelations 
of Government, the Eelations of Connection and the Eela- 
tions of Limitation. 

9. Into what then may Syntax be divided ? Syntax may 
be divided into Government, Limitation and Connec- 
tion. 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

10. How many books of both Prose and Poetry are there 
in the English language ? In the English language there 
are many billions of Prose and Poetical books. 

11. In these Prose and Poetical books, how many words 
are there ? The words used in so many billions of books 
amount to many quadrillions. 

12. If all these words, stamped on miniature metal plates 
and placed in an immense receptacle, were drawn out and 
scrutinized with reference to the Eelations, which they 
are capable of sustaining; into what classes would they 
naturally fall ? These words so drawn would naturally fall 
into four classes. 

13. How many kinds of words then are there in English ? 
There are in English four kinds of words, Governing words, 
Limiting words, Connecting words and Independent words. 

14. Illustrate. In the sentence " John and James killed 
a brown bear.", " killed" is a governing word, "brown" is a 
limiting word and " and " is a connecting word. In the 
sentence "My daughter, bring me the red book and the 
book of anecdotes.", "bring" is a governing word, "of" and 
" and " connecting words, " red " a limiting word and 
" daughter " an independent word. 

15. Give other illustrations. 

16. Give a sentence containing a word, which is both a 
governing and a limiting word. In the sentence " John, talc- 
ing the reins, drove off.", " taking " is both a governing and 
a limiting word. 

17. Give other illustrations. 

18. "What is government ? Government is that power or 
influence ; which one word or element has over another of 
controlling or determining its properties of voice, mood, 
tense, gender, number, person or case. 

19. What parts of speech are generally governing words ? 
Verbs, Nouns, Participles and Prepositions are usually gov- 
erning words. 

20. Illustrate. In the sentence " Orators speak.", the case 
of "Orators" is controlled or determined by the word 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 233 

" speak", hence this word is said to be governed by " speak." 
In the sentence " Hunters kill tigers.", "tigers" is governed 
by " kill," because its case is determined or controlled by 
this word. 

21. Give other illustrations. 

22. How many points of government are there in Syntax ? 
There are nine points of government in Syntax, as set forth 
in Part Second of this book. 

23. How many varieties of government are there ? There 
are two varieties of government. 

24. What is the first variety ? One variety of government 
is that, in which one word sustains to another the relation 
of government over it. 

25. Illustrate. In the sentence "David killed the lion.", 
" killed " governs " lion " in case and so has the relation of 
government over it. 

26. Give other illustrations. 

27. What is the other variety? The other variety of 
government is that, in which one word sustains to another 
the relation of government by it. 

28. Illustrate. In the sentence " David killed the lion.", 
" lion " is governed or controlled in case by " killed " and 
so has the relation of government by it. 

29. Give other illustrations. 

30. Which of these two varieties is most attended to in 
analysis and parsing ? In analysis and parsing the matter 
of chief importance is to show how a word is governed. 

31. When must it be shown, what a word governs ? The 
same word often, like a lieutenant in a military company, 
both governs and is governed and so has both varieties. 
Then we must show, what the word governs, as well as that, 
by which it is governed. 

32. To which word are the rules applied. The rules are 
generally applied to the- word, which is governed and not to 
the word, which governs ; though often two rules are applied 
to the same word or element, one for each variety of govern- 
ment. 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

33. Illustrate. In the sentence " The law forbids killing 
partridges.", it is a part of the exercise of analysis or parsing 
to apply a rule to show, how " killing " is governed, and we 
may also apply one to show, what it governs. In the sen- 
tence "The teacher forbids cutting benches.", cutting has 
both varieties of government and should have a rule applied 
for both. 

34. Give another example of a word having both varieties 
of government. 

LESSON II. 

Government Continued. 

Give and explain the nine points of government with 
their rules and review them, until they are mastered. 

LESSON III. 

Limitation. 

1. What is limitation? Limitation is that power or 
influence, which one word or element has over another of 
reducing it from a general to a special or a particular meaning. 

2. What parts of speech are limiting words ? Participles, 
Adjectives, Adverbs and Nouns are limiting words. 

3. Illustrate. In the sentence " David rides homeward.", 
" rides " is a general and unlimited term ; because there are 
a thousand directions, in which he might have ridden but 
the limiting word "homeward" reduces or limits "rides " 
from its general to a particular meaning. "Homeward" 
limits "rides" from a thousand directions, in which he 
might ride, to one direction, in which he does ride. 

4. Give another illustration. In the sentence " The man 
with the plume is the commander.", "The man" is very 
general and unlimited ; because it might mean any man in 
the army, any one of ten thousands; but the limiting element, 
" with the plume," reduces or limits " The man " from ten 
thousand, to whom it might have been applied, to one, to 
whom it is now applied. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OK SYNTAX. 235 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. How many points of limitation are there in English ? 
There are nine points of limitation, as set forth in Part Sec- 
ond of this book. 

7. How many varieties of limitation are there ? There 
are two varieties of limitation. 

8. What is the first variety ? One variety is that, in which 
one word or element sustains to another the relation of lim- 
itation over it. 

9. Illustrate. In the sentence " A man, who has means, 
is independent.", "who has means " sustains to "man" the 
relation of limitation over it, because it reduces it from a 
general to a particular meaning and thus exercises a limiting 
power over it. 

10. Give other illustrations. 

11. What is the second variety of limitation ? The sec- 
ond variety of limitation is that, in which the limiting word 
sustains to another the relation of limitation by it. 

12. Illustrate. In the sentence "The man, who has 
means, is independent.", " man " has to the limiting clause, 
" who has means," the relation of limitation by it. In the 
expression Black horses, " black " has the relation of limita- 
tion over " horses " and " horses " the relation of limitation 
by " black," because " black " exerts the limiting power and 
" horses " is the recipient of it. 

13. Give other illustrations. 

14. Which of these varieties is most attended to in 
parsing and analysis ? In analysis and parsing the matter 
of chief importance is to show, what a word limits. 

15. When must it be shown, by what a word is limited ? 
Sometimes a word both limits and is limited and then both 
varieties should be shown. But specially is this to be done ; 
when, in analysis, we are pointing out the limiters or modi- 
fiers of an element or sentence. 

16. Illustrate. In the expression " An exceedingly black 
horse," " black " has both varieties of limitation. It both 
limits and is limited. It has the relation of limitation 
over " horse " and by " exceedingly." 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

17. To which variety are the rules applied ? The rules 
are generally applied to the word, which limits, and not to 
the word, which is limited; though often two rules are 
applied to the same word or element, one for each variety of 
limitation. 

18. Illustrate. In the sentence " She plays very sweetly.", 
it is a part of the exercise of analysis or parsing to apply 
Kule the V. to show, what " sweetly " limits, and we may 
also apply the rule to show, by what it is limited. 

19. G-ive another example of a word having, like the word 
" sweetly," both varieties of limitation. 

LESSON IV. 

Limitation Continued. 

Give and explain the nine points of Limitation with their 
rules and review them, until they are perfectly mastered. 

LESSON V. 

Connection. 

1. What is connection in Syntax ? Connection in Syntax 
is the power; one word has; of coupling other words or ele- 
ments or of showing the relations, which exist between other 
words. 

2. What parts of speech are connecting words ? Con- 
junctions, Prepositions, Pronouns and Adverbial Conjunc- 
tions are connecting words. 

3. Illustrate. In the sentences " John of Boston came.", 
"John and James came.", "Joseph came, when he was 
called.", " The man, whom James saw, was blind."; "of" is 
a connecting word, because it shows the relation of 
" Boston " to " John "; " and" because it connects " John 
and "James"; "when," because it connects "came" and 
"was called"; "whom," because it connects its clause 
"James saw" with the principal clause "The man was 
blind." 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OK SYNTAX. 237 

4. How many points of connection are there ? There are 
in Syntax nine points of connection as set forth in Part 
Second of this book. 

5. How many varieties of connection are there ? There 
are two varieties of connection. 

6. What is the first variety ? One variety of connection 
is that, in which one word connects or shows the relation 
between others. 

7. Illustrate. In the phrase "good for nothing," "for" 
connects " nothing " and " good " and shows the relation 
between them. In the sentence " Birds hop and sing.", 
" and " connects " hop " and " sing." 

8. Give other illustrations. 

9. What is another variety ? Another variety of connec- 
tion is that; in which two words, elements or sentences are 
connected together hy another word. 

10. Illustrate. In the sentence " Hunters kill tigers and 
bears.", "tigers" and "bears" are words coupled by the 
conjunction " and." In the sentence " Go, iche re duty calls 
thee.", " go " and " duty calls thee" are clauses coupled by a 
conjunction. 

11. Illustrate again. In the sentence "The man, who 
was tried, was found guilty.", " who " is a connecting word, 
because it connects the relative clause with the principal, 
and it also has the relation of government over "was tried " 
and by "man"; since "man" determines its gender, number 
and person and it determines the number and person of "was 
tried." 

12. Give other illustrations. 

13. Which of these varieties are most attended to in 
parsing and analysis ? It is of equal importance to deter- 
mine the connecting words and the words connected by 
them. 

14. To what are the rules applied ? The rules are always 
applied to the connecting words and may be applied to the 
words connected by them. 

15. Illustrate. In the sentence " Foxes and wolves are 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

wild.", the rule for this connection is applied not to " foxes " 
and "wolves" but to "and" but the same rule can be 
applied also in parsing the words connected. 

16. Illustrate again. In the expression " men of re- 
renown," Kule the II. can be applied in showing that " of" 
connects " men " and " renown " and it can also be applied 
in parsing either of these words for showing, that they are 
connected one with the other. 

17. Besides Governing words, Limiting words and Con- 
necting words ; what other words has the English language ? 
Besides these the English language has also Independent 
words. 

18. What is a rule of Syntax ? A rule of Syntax is a 
statement of the relations, which the words or elements of a 
sentence sustain to each other. 

LESSON VI. 

Connection Continued. 

Give and explain the nine points of connection with their 
rules and review them, until they are mastered. 

LESSON VII. 

The Rules of Syntax. 

Eule I. Conjunctions connect subjects, predicates, words, 
phrases or clauses. 

Rule II. A preposition shows the relation of its object to 
the word, whose meaning the Prepositional Phrase limits. 

Rule III. Connective pronouns connect the relative or 
pronominal clause with the principal clause. 

Rule IV. An adjective or participle limits its noun or 
pronoun from a general to a particular or special meaning. 

Rule V. An adverb limits its verb, adjective, participle 
or adverb from a general to a particular or special meaning. 

Rule VI. If a limiting noun or pronoun follows its base, 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 239 

it is governed by the base, required by it to be in the same 
case and called the Appositive. 

Eule VII. If a limiting noun or pronoun precedes its 
base, it is governed by the base, required by it to be in the 
possessive case and called the Possessive. 

Rule VIII. The infinitive, not used as a noun, is governed 
by the word, whose meaning the Infinitive Phrase limits, and 
required by it to be in the infinitive mood. 

Eule IX. The subject is governed by its verb and 
required by it to be in the nominative case. 

Rule X. A verb is governed by its subject and required 
by it to be in the same number and person. 

Rule XL A verb, having several singular subjects con- 
nected by and, is governed by them and required by them to 
be in the plural. 

Rule XII. A verb, having several singular subjects con- 
nected by or or nor, is governed by them and required by 
them to be in the singular. 

Rule XIII. A verb ; whose subject is a collective noun, 
signifying many as one whole; is governed by it and required 
by it to be in the singular. 

Rule XIV. A verb ; whose subject is a collective noun, 
signifying many as individuals ; is governed by it and re- 
quired by it to be in the plural. 

Rule XV. The object of a verb, participle or preposition 
is governed by it and required by it to be in the objective 
case. 

Rule XVI. A pronoun is governed by its antecedent or 
subsequent and required by it to be in the same gender, 
person and number. 

Rule XVII. A pronoun, having several singular antece- 
dents or subsequents connected by and, is governed by them 
and required by them to be in the plural. 

Rule XVIII. A pronoun, having several singular antece- 
dents or subsequents connected by or or nor, is governed by 
them and required by them to be in the singular. 

Rule XIX. A pronoun ; whose antecedent or subsequent 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is a collective noun, signifying many as one whole; is gov- 
erned by it and required by it to be in the singular. 

Rule XX. A pronoun; whose antecedent or subsequent 
is a collective noun, signifying many as individuals; is gov- 
erned by it and required by it to be in the plural 

Rule XXI. A noun or pronoun, used independently, has 
no relation of government to the predicate of the sentence 
and is in the absolute case. 

Rule XXII. Interjections sustain no relations to the 
other words or elements of their sentences. 



LESSON VIII. 

The Sentence.— Punctuation. 

1. What is a sentence ? A sentence is a group of words 
or elements so related to each other as to make complete 
sense. 

2. Illustrate. Softly now the light of day 

Fades upon our sight away. 

3. Give other examples. 

4. In how many ways may the sentence be used? The 
sentence may be used in four ways : First, to declare some- 
thing ; Second, to ask a question ; Third, to express a com- 
mand and Fourth, to make an exclamation. 

5. How many kinds of sentences then are there according 
to use ? There are four kinds of sentences according to use, 
the Declarative, the Interrogative, the Imperative and the 
Exclamatory. 

6. What is a Declarative sentence? A Declarative sen- 
tence is one used to express a thought in the form of an 
affirmation or negation. 

7. Illustrate. The candidate will not be elected. The 
ship has gone out. Rome was not built in a day. 

8 Give other illustrations. 

9. In what are these examples alike ? 

10. What is an Interrogative sentence ? An Interrogative 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 241 

sentence is one used to express a thought in the form of a 
question. 

11. Illustrate. "Who will be the next president ? 

12. Give other examples. 

13. In what are these examples alike ? 

14. What is an Imperative sentence ? An Imperative 
sentence is one used to express a thought in the form of a 
command, an entreaty, an exhortation or a permission. 

15. Illustrate. . Go. Come, when you are called. 

16. Give other illustrations. 

17. What is to be explained by the examples? 

18. What is an Exclamatory sentence ? An Exclamatory 
sentence is one used to express a thought in the form of an 
exclamation. 

19. Illustrate. " Great is Diana of the Ephesians ! " 

20. Give other illustrations and explain, in what they are 
alike. 

21. What is Punctuation ? Punctuation is using points 
instead of the parenthesis in complex and instead of the 
conjunction in compound elements or sentences. 

22. What points are used in this way ? The Comma (,), 
the Semicolon (;) and the Colon (:). 

23. How are they used for the parenthesis ? They are 
used for the parenthesis in pairs to cut oif a subordinate 
clause or element from its principal or from its base. 

24. Illustrate. Caesar, when .he had conquered Gaul, 
returned to Italy. The soldier, putting his confidence in 
God, deliberately went into the battle. 

25. State the exception. When the modifier does not fall 
within the bosom of the base, one of the pair is used to 
separate them and the other is understood. 

26. Illustrate. When Caesar had conquered Gaul, he 
returned to Italy. Putting his confidence in God, the 
soldier deliberately went into the battle. 

27. Explain this. In complex elements, points, like 
snakes, go in pairs and, when one is seen, the other is always 
near and easily found. 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

28. When will the point understood reappear? The 
point understood will reappear, when the subordinate clause 
or element is restored to the bosom of the base. 

29. Illustrate. Caesar, when he had conquered Gaul, 
returned to Italy. The soldier, putting his confidence in 
God, deliberately went into the battle. 

30. Give other illustrations. 

LESSON IX. 

The Sentence Continued. — Punctuation Continued. 

1. How are points used for the conjunction ? These 
points are used instead of the conjunction to connect the 
members of a compound sentence or element. 

2. Illustrate. Caesar, Cicero, Pompey and Brutus were 
Eomans. 

3. When are commas used? Commas are used in the 
smallest separate elements or members. 

4. Illustrate with a complex sentence. His son, who had 
killed the bear, returned home. 

5. Illustrate with a compound element. John, James, 
William and Joseph swim. 

6. When are semicolons used in complex elements or sen- 
tences? When the small separate elements or sentences, 
containing commas, become parts of larger complex elements] 
these must in turn be cut off by semicolons. 

7. Illustrate. The hunter ; when his son, who had killed 
the bear, returned home ; praised him for his manliness. 

8. When should semicolons be used in compound ele- 
ments and sentences ? When the small separate element or 
sentence, containing commas, becomes one of the members of 
a larger compound; these members must be connected by 
semicolons. 

9. Illustrate. John, James, William and Joseph swim; 
Thomas, Eufus, Samuel and Eobert run; Allen, Abram, 
Ealph and Newton swing; Susan, Eachel, Jane and Mary 
spin. 



SENTENCE- ANALYSIS OK SYNTAX. 243 

10. Why is this done ? Commas have been already used 
and their power exhausted in making small separations and 
connections and now, to prevent ambiguity and confusion, 
some other point must be used to make the greater separa- 
tions and connections. 

11. When are points used for separations? Points are 
used for separations in complex elements and sentences, 

12. Illustrate. John, like a madman, has left school. 
Kachel, when she left home, was suffering. 

13. Give other illustrations and show the point of 
analogy. 

LESSON X. 

The Sentence Continued. — Punctuation Continued. 

1. When are points used for connections? Points are 
used for connections in compound elements and sentences. 

2. Illustrate. Mary sings, reads, talks, dances and spins 
well. Bears, deer, foxes, wolves, tigers and buffaloes run 
wild. 

3. When are colons used? If the members of a large 
compound contain commas and semicolons within them, 
these members must be connected by colons, , 

4. Illustrate. 3, 3, 5 and 9 ; 5, 5, 5 and 5 ; 10, 5 and 5 ; 
5, 7, 2 and 6 each make 20 : 4, 4, 4 and 18; 10, 10, 5 
and 5 ; 6, 4, 10 and 10 ; 12, 12 and 6 each make 30 : 10, 10, 
10 and 10; 5, 5, 5 and 25; 20, 10 and 10; 20, 5, 5 and 10 
each make 40 : 10, 10, 10 and 20 ; 20, 20 and 10; 25, 10, 5 
and 10 ; 15, 15, 5 and 15 each make 50. 

5. Compose another example, showing the use of commas, 
semicolons and colons for conjunctions. 

6. In the sentence 3, 3, 5 and 9 are 20, why is the comma 
not used with the conjunction between the last two mem- 
bers ? Because the conjunction is present and needs no 
comma to stand instead of it. 

7. Does this rule hold good for semicolons ? Semicolons 
often, if not always, take the place of the conjunction every- 



244 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

where and then the conjunction is not used at all but the 
sentence conforms to the Latin rule. 

8. What is the rule for colons ? Colons generally follow 
the Latin rule " The conjunction everywhere or nowhere." 

9. Why is this ? As the conjunction has only the sepa- 
rating or connecting force of a comma in the first member of 
the first member, it would be understood to have only the 
same, when used with the force of a semicolon or colon, and 
this would create ambiguity and confuse the reader. 

10. Illustrate. John, James, William and Joseph swim ; 
Thomas, Eufus, Samuel and Karl hunt; Susan, Jane, 
Eachel and Mary dance. Here the conjunction is used 
within the members for the comma. If used between the 
members, though it would have to possess much more force 
than the comma, it would be taken by the reader to have 
only the same. So, to prevent this ambiguity, it is left out 
and its place supplied by the semicolon. 

11. What is meant by the co-ordinate use of points? 
When one element limits a second and this limits a third 
and this a fourth as the principal clause or element, the first 
is cut off by a comma, the second by a semicolon and the 
third by a colon. But sometimes the principal clause or 
element is limited by two or three co-ordinate modifiers, 
none of which are subordinate to any other. In this case 
these may each be separated from the common base by the 
same point; by the comma, by the semicolon or by the 
colon as the case may be. 

12. Illustrate this. In the sentence " When Kufus came 
to town, he discounted a note, because he had been robbed 
of his pocket money.", " When Rufus came to town " and 
" because he had been robbed of his pocket money " are 
co-ordinate clauses and must be cut off from the principal 
clause " he discounted a note " by the same points namely 
commas. 

13. Give and explain other examples. 

14. Where will this subject be further treated ? This 
subject will be further treated after the element in the ap- 
plication of punctuation. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 245 

15. What other points are used? The terminal points 
are the Exclamation point (!), the Interrogation point (?) 
and the Period (.) 

16. What other marks are used ? The Dash ( — ), the 
Parentheses ( ( ) ) and the Brackets ( [ ] ) are all sometimes 
used in writing. 

17. Why is punctuation often wrong in Latin, Greek and 
English books ? Because writers and compilers try to mark 
rhetorical pauses by these points according to the old rule. 

18. For what are these points intended ? These points 
are intended only to mark grammatical or syntactical con- 
nections and separations. 

19. What was the old rule for minding stops ? The old 
rule was to stop and count a certain number at each point. 

20. Do rhetorical and grammatical pauses correspond? 
Rhetorical and grammatical pauses do not correspond. 

21. Prove that punctuation is wrong in the books. The 
same sentences, in different editions or compilations of the 
same book, often have a totally different punctuation, while 
in each they require the same separations and connections. 
The members of a Latin class at school often have to com- 
pare several different editions of the same book; Cicero, Tac- 
itus or Caesar; in order to read them : because no two of 
them are punctuated alike, while the principles of syntax 
admit of no variety in punctuation. 

22. Illustrate. As in anatomy the joints or articulations 
of different subjects or bodies exactly correspond, so punc- 
tuation thus used to mark the various joints and hinges of 
the sentence admits of no variation. 

23. For what then is punctuation used? Punctuation is 
used to make grammatical connections and separations and 
not rhetorical pauses. 

LESSON XI. 

The Sentence Continued. — Punctuation Continued. 

1. What is the principle as to the use of semicolons and 
colons in complex sentences and elements ? If a modifier is 



246 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

separated from its base by a pair of commas, this entire 
expression, becoming also a modifier, must be separated from 
its base by a pair of semicolons and this entire expression, 
becoming also a modifier, must be separated from its base by 
a pair of colons. 

2. Illustrate. Charles failed to enter the university: 
because ; after the committee, who gave him such a mag- 
nanimous and courteous examination, had rendered to the 
faculty a most favorable report of his preparation ; he wan- 
tonly killed one of his fellow-applicants for admission. 

3. When is this principle applicable ? This principle is 
applicable, when the commas, semicolons and colons are all 
used for the parenthesis in complex elements and sentences. 

4. What is the principle as to the use of semicolons and 
colons in compound sentences and elements ? When mem- 
bers are connected by commas and then the entire com- 
pound becomes one of the members of a larger compound, 
these larger members must be connected by semicolons and, 
when this entire compound becomes one of the members of 
a still larger compound, these larger members should be 
connected by colons. 

5. Illustrate. Copy and read this sentence. 3, 3, 5 and 
9; 5, 5, 5 and 5 ; 10, 5 and 5; 5, 7, 2 and 6 each make 20 : 
4, 4, 4 and 18; 10, 10, 5 and 5; 6, 4, 10 and 10; 12, 12 and 
6 each make 30 : 10, 10, 10 and 10 ; 5, 5, 5 and 25 ; 20, 10 
and 10; 20, 5, 5 and 10 each make 40: 10, 10, 10 and 20; 
20, 20 and 10; 25, 10, 5 and 10; 15, 15, 5 and 15 each 
make 50. 

6. When does this principle apply? This principle 
applies when the commas, semicolons and colons are used 
for the conjunction in compound elements and sentences. 

7. Explain still further. If four compound members 
were connected by commas, where commas had been used 
in connecting their members ; this would create ambiguity 
and confusion; because heavy connections and light con- 
nections Would be made by the same points in the same 
sentence. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 247 

8. Explain still further. If a large complex element was 
separated from its base by commas, when commas had 
already been used within it to cut off its modifiers from the 
base ; this would create ambiguity and confusion, because 
the same points would be used for heavy separations and 
light separations in the same sentence. 

9. What is the general statement of these principles? 
"When the smallest separations or connections have been 
made by commas and their separating or connecting force 
exhausted, then larger separations or connections must be 
made by semicolons and, when the separating or connect- 
ing force of semicolons has been exhausted in this interme- 
diate use, then larger separations and connections must be 
made by colons ; because, if the heavy and light separations 
or connections were all made by the same points in the same 
sentence, confusion and ambiguity would be the result. 

10. Has punctuation been understood in the past ? Some 
great scholars and writers are said never to have used punc- 
tuation at all, because the subject was not understood nor 
supposed to be susceptible of reduction to a definite system. 

11. What systems of punctuation are generally followed ? 
No systems of punctuation are followed. Punctuation is 
not done by system but by random. 

12. Illustrate this. No two persons punctuate alike and 
the same person punctuates no two writings alike. 

13. Illustrate again. No two editions or compilations of 
Milton, Macaulay, Xenophon, Caesar, Cicero, Livy, Demos- 
thenes or Josephus are punctuated alike and no two modern 
books or newspaper articles are punctuated alike. 

14. When will punctuation be understood? When punc- 
tuation is treated as an essential part of sentence-analysis 
and the syntactical points are never used except, where they 
signify either a conjunction or a parenthesis; the subject will 
become easy to understand and apply. 

15. To what point will the study of punctuation then be 
carried ? When punctuation is studied as a part of sen- 
tence analysis, it will become not only a part but an essential 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

part of language and will be as exact as a demonstration in 
mathematics. 

16. In what is punctuation now indispensable ? Punctu- 
ation is now indispensable among other things in con- 
structing a compound element out of other compound 
members. 

17. Can this be done by the conjunction ? If we wish to 
connect two groups of three objects having conjunctions 
within them, we cannot do so by the conjunction, because 
then it would appear to be not two groups of three objects 
each but one group of six objects each. 

18. Illustrate. In the compound expression " John and 
James and William and Joseph and Karl and Samuel " this 
appears to be not two groups of three united but one group 
of six and the desired effect cannot be produced by conjunc- 
tions. 

19. Can such groups be united by points? Such groups 
can be well connected by points in such a way as to present 
the shade of idea desired. 

20. Illustrate. John, James, William; Joseph, Karl, 
Samuel. 

21. Illustrate again. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I love, 1. We love, 

2. You love, 2. You love, 

3. He loves ; 3. They love. 

22. Could this last combination be expressed by using 
the conjunction in its own place ? It could not ; for then 
it would not appear, that there were three singulars and 
three plurals connected, but the entire six would appear as 
one group, I love and you love and he loves and we love and 
you love and they love. 

23. Can a compound modifier be cut off from its base by 
the same points, which it contains ? Sometimes this can be 
done without violence to the system, because the points in 
this case are used for different purposes. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OE SYNTAX. 249 

24. Illustrate. The boy, who killed the bear, the tiger, 
the lion and the deer was afterward imprisoned. 

25. Should this practice be indulged ? It should not, 
the principle laid down should be strictly followed. Whether 
the lower points are used for the conjunction or the paren- 
thesis the next heavier connections or separations should be 
made by the next higher points. 

26. What is the difference between terminal points and 
others ? Terminal points are such as are used at the end of 
sentences. Those used within the sentence, to aid in its 
construction, should be called syntactical points. 

27. Illustrate. John ; who climbed a tree, when the bear 
growled : James ; who screamed, when he saw the panther : 
Joseph ; who returned to the tent, because he saw a snake : 
William ; who deserted, because they could not find buffa- 
loes were all condemned as bad huntsmen. 

28. To what extent do the above principles ' apply ? 
These principles apply to all the syntactical points. 

29. When was punctuation introduced into language ? 
Punctuation has been introduced into language in modern 
times. 

30. How were ancient manuscripts written ? The manu- 
scripts of ancient languages are not punctuated and even 
their words and sentences are not separated from each 
other. The entire manuscript is written as one word. 

31. Why have only three syntactical points been brought 
into use ? Only the comma, semicolon and colon have 
been brought into use: because; when these have been 
exhausted, as explained above ; the complex and compound 
sentences are, as large as it is desirable to make them. The 
thought is then sufficiently diverse from that of the fol- 
lowing sentence to be broken off by the period, a terminal 
point. 

32. Where will punctuation be resumed ? This subject 
will receive further treatment after the element; which will 
consist of an explanation of the meaning of the points, that 
occur in actual sentences, and the correction of erroneous 
punctuation. 



250 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

LESSON XII. 

The Sentence. 

1. What is a sentence ? A sentence is a group of words 
or elements so related as to express a complete thought. 

2. How many kinds of sentences are there ? There are 
three kinds of sentences; the Simple, the Complex and the 
Compound. 

3. What is a Simple sentence ? A Simple sentence con- 
sists of a single proposition, haying but one subject and one 
predicate. 

4. Illustrate. Snow covers the ground. Snow and wool 
are white. 

5. Compose other illustrations. 

6. In what particular are these examples alike ? 

7. What is a Complex sentence ? A complex sentence 
consists of a principal clause, some element of which is lim- 
ited by one or more subordinate clauses. 

8. Illustrate. When the morning dawns, man goes forth 
to his work. This is a complex sentence: because it con- 
sists of a principal clause, " Man goes forth to his work "; 
some element of which, " goes " the predicate, is limited by 
one or more subordinate clauses. 

9. Write other illustrations. 

10. What is the point to be explained by these examples? 

11. Give directions for writing a complex sentence. If 
the subordinate clause falls within the principal clause, cut 
it off by a pair of commas, semicolons or colons but, if it 
falls without, separate them by a comma, semicolon or colon. 

12. Illustrate. Men of prudence, when a course proves 
unwise, change their plans. When a course proves unwise, 
men of prudence change their plans. 

13. Compose other examples. 

14. In what are these examples alike ? 

15. What is a Compound sentence? A compound sen- 
tence consists of two or more simple, complex or compound 
sentences connected by conjunctions. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 251 

16. Illustrate. John runs, Joseph works, James sits and 
William stands. 

17. Compose other illustrations. 

18. In what are these examples alike ? 

19. Give the rule, for writing a compound sentence. Con- 
nect the members by commas, semicolons or colons instead 
of conjunctions but, in using the comma and sometimes in 
using the semicolon, leave it out between the last two mem- 
bers and use the conjunction there in its own place. In 
using the colon and generally the semicolon, do not use the 
conjunction at all. 

20. Illustrate. James runs, John dances, William plays 
and Susan sings. John, James, William and Joseph run ; 
Susan, Jane, Each el and Mary spin ; Fannie, Thomas, Karl 
and Ann play; Mary, Julia, Eobert, Pearl and Thomas 
read. John, because he heard a wolf, trembled; James, 
because he saw a bear, refused to leave the tent ; William, 
because he heard an owl, fainted ; Thomas, because he saw 
a snake, returned home; All, because they were afraid, left 
Robert to finish the hunt. 

21. Give another illustration. 

22. What is to be illustrated by these examples ? 

LESSON XIII. 

The Element. 

1. What is an Element? An element is one of the dis- 
tinct parts or factors of a sentence. 

2. How many kinds of elements are there? There are 
three kinds of elements ; the Simple, the Complex and the 
Compound. 

3. What is a simple element ? A simple element consists 
of a single element or base unlimited. 

4. Illustrate. In the sentence " Horses run," both words 
are simple elements, because they consist of single elements 
unlimited. 

5. Compose other illustrations. 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. What is the point to be illustrated by these examples ? 

7. What is a complex element ? A complex element con- 
sists of a single element or base, some part of which is lim- 
ited by one or more modifiers. 

8. Illustrate. In the sentence " Go to your studies.", " to 
your studies " is a complex element : because it consists of 
a single element or base, "to studies"; a part of which, 
"studies," is limited by the modifier "your." In the sen- 
tence " Bad men are blamed.", " bad men " is a complex 
element ; because some part of it, " men," is limited by the 
modifier " bad." 

9. Write other illustrations. 

10. In what are these examples alike ? 

11. Give the directions for writing a complex element. 
If an extended modifier "falls within the base, cut it off by 
commas, semicolons or colons but, if it falls luithout, sepa- 
rate them by a comma, semicolon or colon. 

12. Illustrate. The prisoner, more like a martyr than a 
culprit y marched to his execution. More like a martyr than 
a culprit, the prisoner marched to his execution. 

13. Write other examples. 

14. In what are all these examples alike ? 

15. What is a compound element ? A compound element 
consists of two or more simple, complex or compound ele- 
ments connected by conjunctions. 

16. Illustrate. The hunter killed a bear, a lion, a tiger, a 
wolf and a panther. 

17. Compose other illustrations. 

18. Show in what these are alike. 

19. Give directions for writing a compound element. 
Connect the members by commas, semicolons or colons 
instead of conjunctions but, in using the comma and some- 
times in using the semicolon, leave it out between the last 
two members and use the conjunction there in its own place. 
In using the colon and generally the semicolon, do not use 
the conjunction at all. 

20. Illustrate. Green, yellow, brown, red, purple and 
white leaves are found in the forest. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 253 

21. Compose other illustrations. 

22. Show in what they are alike. 

LESSON XIV. 

The Absolute Element. 

1. What is the Absolute Element? The absolute element 
is a word or group of words standing alone and free from 
any relation to the predicate of the sentence. 

2. How many kinds of absolute elements are there ? There 
are three kinds of absolute elements ; the simple, the com- 
plex and the compound. 

3. What is a simple absolute element ? A simple abso- 
lute element consists of a single absolute element or base 
unlimited. 

4. Illustrate. In the sentence " Caesar, Pompey lies in 
wait for thee.", " Caesar " is a simple absolute element, 
because it is a single absolute element or base unlimited. 

5. Compose other illustrations. 

6. In what particular are these examples alike ? 

7. What is a complex absolute element? A complex 
absolute element consists of a single absolute base, some 
part of which is limited by one or more modifiers. 

8. Illustrate. In the sentence " Great Caesar, conqueror 
of Gaul ; Pompey lies in wait for thee.", " Great Caesar, con- 
queror of Gaul," is a complex absolute element ; because it 
consists of a single absolute base, some part of which is lim- 
ited by one or more modifiers. 

9. Write other illustrations. 

10. In what are these examples alike ? 

11. Give directions for writing a complex absolute ele- 
ment. If an extended modifier falls within the base, cut it 
off by a pair of commas, semicolons or colons but, if it falls 
without the base, separate them by a comma,, semicolon or 
colon. 

12. Illustrate. Great Caesar, ivho hast in seven years con- 
quered Gaul ; Pompey lies in wait for thee. 



254: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

13. Write other illustrations. 

14. In what are these examples alike ? 

15. What is a compound absolute element ? A compound 
absolute element consists of two or more simple, complex or 
compound absolute elements connected by conjunctions. 

16. Illustrate. John, James, William and Joseph; come 
to your books. 

17. Give other illustrations. 

18. Point out the analogy between the illustrations. 

19. Give directions for writing a compound absolute ele- 
ment. Connect the members by commas, semicolons or 
colons instead of conjunctions but, in using the comma and 
sometimes in using the semicolon, leave it out between the 
last two members and use the conjunction there in its own 
place. In using the colon and generally the semicolon, do 
not use the conjunction at all. 

20. Illustrate, Great Caesar, great Brutus, great Scipio 
and great Pompeyj what would Rome be without you I 

21. Write other illustrations, 

22. Show the analogy. 

LESSON XV. 

The Subject Element. 

1. What is the Subject Element ? The subject element 
is a word or group of words, of which something is affirmed 
or said. The grammatical is the simple subject, the logical 
is the simple subject with all its modifiers. 

2. How many kinds of subjects are there ? There are 
three kinds of subjects; the simple, the complex and the 
compound. 

3. What is a simple subject? A simple subject is a 
single subject or subject base unlimited. 

4. Illustrate. Philanthropists study the welfare of man- 
kind. 

5. Write other illustrations. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 255 

6. What is the point of likeness among these examples? 

7. What is a complex subject ? A complex subject con- 
sists of a single subject base, some part of which is limited 
by one or more modifiers. 

8. Illustrate. True philanthropists study the welfare of 
mankind. 

9. Write other illustrations. 

10. Show the point of analogy between the examples. 

11. Give directions for writing a complex subject. If an 
extended modifier falls within the base, cut it off by a pair 
of commas, semicolons or colons but, if it fails without, 
separate them by a comma, semicolon or colon. 

12. Illustrate. He; that, being often reproved, hardeneth 
his neck; shall suddenly be destroyed. Alexander; to 
whom the sword, which was found near the enemies' breast- 
works, belonged; was at once promoted to the rank of cap- 
tain. 

13. Compose other examples. 

14. How are they alike ? 

15. What is a compound subject ? A compound subject 
consists of two or more simple, complex or compound sub- 
jects connected by conjunctions. 

16. Illustrate. Bay, corn, oats and grass are the food of 
horses. 

17. Write other illustrations. 

18. Show the point of likeness. 

19. Give directions for writing a compound subject. 
Connect the members by commas, semicolons or colons 
instead of conjunctions but, in using the comma and some- 
times in using the semicolon, leave it out between the last 
two members and use the conjunction there in its own 
place. In using the colon and generally the semicolon, do 
not use the conjunction at all. 

20. Illustrate. Joseph, who had in youth shown great 
talent ; Ralph, who had shown great industry ; Thomas, who 
had shown great tact; William, who had shown deep judg- 
ment all became distinguished men. 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

21. Write other examples. 

22. Show, in what these examples are alike. 

LESSON" XVI. 

The Predicate Element. 

1. What is the predicate element? The predicate ele- 
ment is a word or group of words, which is affirmed or said 
of the subject. The grammatical is the simple predicate, 
the logical is the simple predicate with all of its modifiers. 

2. How many kinds of predicates are there? There are 
three kinds of predicates ; the simple, the complex and the 
compound. 

3. What is a simple predicate ? A simple predicate is a 
single predicate or predicate base unlimited. 

4. Illustrate. In the sentence " John studies.", " studies " 
is a simple predicate, because it consists of a predicate base 
unlimited. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. Show the analogy. They are all simple predicates, 
because they are single predicates unlimited. 

7. What is a complex predicate ? A complex predicate 
consists of a single predicate base, some part of which is 
limited by one or more modifiers. 

8. Illustrate. John studies his lessons well. 

9. Compose other illustrations. 

10. Show the point of likeness. 

11. Give directions for writing a complex predicate. 
When a long modifier falls within the base, cut it off by a 
pair of commas, semicolons or colons but, when it falls with- 
out, separate them by a comma, semicolon or colon. 

12. Illustrate. The general ; after he heard, that the enemy 
were flying; died where he had fallen. 

13. Compose two other examples. 

14. Show the point of likeness between them. 

15. What is a compound predicate ? A compound predi- 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OK SYNTAX. 257 

cate consists of two or more simple, complex or compound 
predicates connected by conjunctions. 

16. Illustrate. The boy reads, sings, dances and plays, 

17. Compose four more illustrations. 

18. Show the point of analogy. 

19. Give directions for writing a compound predicate. 
Connect all the members by commas, semicolons or colons 
instead of conjunctions but, in using the comma and 
sometimes in using the semicolon, leave it out between the 
last two members and use the conjunction there in its own 
place. In using the colon and generally the semicolon, do 
not use the conjunction at all. 

20. Illustrate. Caesar fought, when it was necessary, in 
ranks; tented with his soldiers on the field, ivhen danger 
was nigh; cheered them, when their courage was low, with 
speeches; provided them, when they were hungry, with abund- 
ance of corn. 

21. Compose another example. 

22. In what respect are the two alike ? 

LESSON XVII. 

The Adjective Element. 

1. What is an Adjective Element ? An adjective element 
is a word or group of words, used to limit the meaning of a 
noun. 

2. How many kinds of adjective elements are there? 
There are three kinds of adjective elements ; the simple, the 
complex and the compound. 

3. What is a simple adjective element ? A simple adjec- 
tive element is a single adjective element or base unlimited. 

4. Illustrate. In the sentence " Men of wealth are hon- 
ored.", "of wealth " is a simple adjective element, because it 
is a single adjective element or base unmodified. 

5. Write three other examples. 

6. In what are these alike ? 

7. What is a complex adjective element? A complex 



258 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

adjective element consists of a single adjective element or 
base, some part of which is limited by one or more modifiers. 

8. Illustrate. Men of great wealth are honored. 

9. Give other examples. 

10. In what are these examples alike ? 

1.1. Give directions for writing a complex adjective ele- 
ment. If a long modifier falls within the base, cut it off by 
a pair of commas, semicolons or colons but, if it falls with- 
out the base, separate them by a comma, semicolon or colon. 

12. Illustrate. The christian ; most tempted, while he is 
in the crucible of reformation, to return to the world ; often 
makes the firmest standard-bearer of the truth afterwards. 

13. Write another example. 

14. What is the point of likeness ? 

15. What is a compound adjective element? A com- 
pound adjective element consists of two or more simple, 
complex or compound adjective elements connected by con- 
junctions. 

16. Illustrate. We often see green, yellow, drown and red 
leaves on the same tree. 

17. Write other illustrations. 

18. In what are these alike? 

19. Give directions for writing a compound adjective ele- 
ment, Connect the members by commas, semicolons or 
colons instead of conjunctions but, in using the comma and 
sometimes in using the semicolon, leave it out between the 
last two members and use the conjunction there in its own 
place. In using the colon and generally the semicolon, do 
not use the conjunction at all. 

20. Illustrate. Books have brown, red, green, white, blue 
or black covers. 

21. Write other examples. 

22. In what are these all alike ? 

LESSON XVIII. 

The Adveebial Element. 
1. What is an Adverbial Element? An adverbial ele- 



SENTENCE- ANALYSIS OK SYNTAX. 259 

ment is a word or group of words used to limit the meaning 
of a verb, adjective, participle or adverb. 

2. How many kinds of adverbial elements are there? 
There are three kinds of adverbial elements ; the simple, the 
complex and the compound. 

3. What is a simple adverbial element ? A simple adver- 
bial element is a single adverbial element or base unlimited. 

4. Illustrate. The horse eats greedily, 

5. Write other illustrations. 

6. In what are these alike ? 

7. What is a complex adverbial element? A complex 
adverbial element consists of a single adverbial element or 
base, some part of which is limited by one or more modifiers. 

8. Illustrate. The horse eats very greedily. 

9. Compose other illustrations. 

10. In what are these examples alike ? 

11. Give a rule for writing a complex adverbial element. 
If an extended modifier falls within the base, cut it off by a 
pair of commas, semicolons or colons but, if it falls without 
the base, separate them by a comma, semicolon or colon. 

12. Illustrate. The soldier climbed into the fort ; where, 
after he ivas exhausted by loss of blood, he died, 

13. Compose another illustration. 

14. In what are these alike? 

15. What is a compound adverbial element? A com- 
pound adverbial element consists of two or more simple, 
complex or compound adverbial elements connected by con- 
junctions. 

16. Illustrate. The dramatist wrote his play in French, 
in English, in Spanish and in German, 

17. Compose other illustrations. 

18. In what are these analogous ? 

19. Give a rule for writing a compound adverbial element. 
Connect the members by commas, semicolons or colons 
instead of conjunctions but, in using the comma and some- 
times in using the semicolon, leave it out between the last 
two members and use the conjunction there in its own 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

place. In using the colon and sometimes the semicolon, 
do not use the conjunction at all. 

20. Illustrate. The philosopher reasons deeply, clearly, 
consecutively and very accurately, 

21. Compose other examples. 

22. In what point are these alike ? 

LESSON XIX. 

The Objective Element. 

1. What is an Objective Element ? An objective element 
is a word or group of words used as the object of a transi- 
tive participle or a transitive verb. 

2. How many kinds of objective elements are there ? 
There are three kinds of objective elements; the simple, the 
complex and the compound. 

3. What is a simple objective element ? A simple objec- 
tive element is a single objective element or base unlimited. 

4. Illustrate. David loved Jonathan, 

5. Write other illustrations. 

6. In what are they alike ? 

7. What is a complex objective element? A complex 
objective element consists of an objective base, some part or 
element of which is limited by one or more modifiers. 

8. Illustrate. David loved Jonathan, the son of Saul, 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. In what are these alike ? 

11. Give a rule for writing a complex objective element. 
If an extended modifier falls within the base, cut it off by a 
pair of commas, semicolons or colons but, if it falls without 
the base, separate them by a comma, semicolon or colon. 

12. Illustrate. The soldiers captured the Indians; who, 
the summer before, had massacred a fa?nily of citizens, 

13. Write other illustrations. 

14. In what are they alike ? 

15. What is a compound objective element? A com- 
pound objective element consists of two or more simple, 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 261 

complex or compound objective elements connected by con- 
junctions. 

16. Illustrate. The huntsman killed a hear, a fox, a wolf, 
a turkey and a deer. 

17. Write two other illustrations. 

18. In what are these examples alike ? 

19. Give the rule for writing a compound objective ele- 
ment. Connect the members by commas, semicolons or 
colons instead of conjunctions but, in using the comma and 
sometimes in using the semicolon, leave it out between the 
last two members and use the conjunction there in its own 
place. In using the colon and generally the semicolon, do 
not use the conjunction at all. 

20. Illustrate. The huntsman killed a tear, which had 
crawled into a cave ; a lion, which from loss of blood was not 
able to make its escape ; a deer, which by some wolf had been 
chased in, and a fox, which to escape some enemy had climbed 
a leaning tree. 

21. Compose another illustration. 

22. In what are these alike ? 

LESSON XX. 

The Elements Combined. 

1. What peculiarity have the last eight lessons? The 
last eight lessons are all alike, though they treat upon dif- 
ferent subjects. 

2. In what are they alike ? The questions and answers or 
definitions are the same in number and the same in substance 
and those of the first lesson, with slight changes, would 
answer for all the eight. 

3. Why does this similarity exist ? The similarity between 
these lessons is owing to the fact ; that, whatever is true of 
the sentence, is also true of its component parts or elements. 

4. Illustrate. For example, the sentence is in form 
either simple, complex or compound and so are all the ele- 
ments and the elements of the elements and so forth. 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Why are these eight lessons easy? These lessons are 
easy; because, when the learner has mastered one, he has 
virtually mastered all of them. 

6. To what extent can a large complex sentence be divided 
and subdivided ? A sentence may be divided into its prin- 
cipal elements, the subject and predicate, and these into 
their elements and these into their elements and these into 
their elements and so on to the last and least word. 

7. If a huntsman aims at a bird in a tree and his bullet, 
after killing it, glances and kills a squirrel ; how is he said to 
kill them ? He is said to kill the bird directly and the 
squirrel indirectly. 

8. Are the modifiers of an element always direct? An 
element may have direct modifiers and indirect modifiers. 

9. Explain this. As the twig connects with the branch 
and the branch with the limb and the limb with the trunk, 
so an element may have modifiers of modifiers and modifiers 
of the modifiers of its modifiers and so on. 

10. What do all subordinate elements limit? All ele- 
ments limit the subject or predicate either directly or indi- 
rectly. 

11. Illustrate. In the sentence " The queen is very beau- 
tiful.", " very " is an indirect modifier of " queen," because 
it limits " beautiful " and " beautiful," after being itself thus 
limited, limits " queen." In the sentence " The horse runs 
very swiftly.", " very " is an indirect modifier of " runs" for 
the reasons given. 

12. How can this property of the sentence be explained ? 
The examination of a crystal will illustrate the properties of 
the sentence. 

13. What is a crystal ? A crystal is a stone or any body ; 
which, when hardening from a liquid into a solid, always 
assumes a certain form, having regular faces and angles. 

14. Illustrate. Crystals of quartz, of spar, of salt, of alum 
and of limestone are of common occurrence. 

15. If a piece of quartz is broken into pieces, what form 
will the pieces have ? The halves will retain the same crys- 
talline form as the original stone. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OK SYNTAX. 263 

16. If a crystal is broken into grains or granulated, what 
will be true of the grains ? The grains will haye the same 
crystalline form as the original. 

17. If these be pulverized or ground into powder, what 
will be true of the grains of dust ? These powder grains, 
under the microscope, will be found to have the crystalline 
form of the original stone. 

18. How does this apply to explain the sentence ? The 
smallest elements of the sentence, like the smallest pieces of 
crystal, have the same characteristics as the sentence, of 
which it is a part. 

19. How will two surgeons, one in Australia and one in 
Virginia, perform an amputation ? Two such surgeons will 
perform an amputation in exactly the same way. 

20. Why will these surgical operations be performed alike ? 
These operations will be exactly alike, though they are so 
far removed from each other, because the facts and laws of 
man's physical nature are the same or uniform throughout 
the world. 

21. What is true of different sentences and different parts 
or elements of the same sentence? They have the same 
facts, laws and principles running through them. 

22. Why is this? This is, because a sentence is an 
expressed thought and the laws of thought are uniform 
among all intelligent beings. 

23. What is the most important item of secular knowl- 
edge? The most important item of secular knowledge is 

THE SENTENCE. 

24. How long has the sentence been maturing ? It has 
taken the combined wisdom of the human race thousands of 
years to mature the sentence. 

25. What may the sentence be considered ? The sentence 
may be considered the highest achievement of human thought. 

26. Why is the sentence the same in its facts and princi- 
ples in all languages ? The sentence is the same in its facts 
and principles in all languages ; because thought, of which it 
is the outward expression, is the same throughout the world. 



264 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

27. Why is thought the same or uniform ? Thought is 
uniform ; because the mind, which originates the thought, is 
the same everywhere. 

28. Why is the mind uniform ? The mind is uniform in 
its facts and laws upon the principle, that no two works of 
the same wise Author can be inconsistent, at variance or 
incompatible with each other. 

29. What does this uniformity in the facts, laws and prin- 
ciples of different sentences and different elements of the 
same sentence show ? This uniformity shows, that Grammar 
is a real and true science. 

30. What may Grammar be called? Grammar may be 
called External Psychology; because, as Psychology treats 
of thought in the mind, so Grammar treats of thought 
expkessed. 

31. Upon what do these similar lessons treat ? These 
similar lessons treat; first of the Sentence, second of the 
Element in general, third of the Absolute Element, 
fourth of the Subject, fifth of the > Predicate, sixth of 
the Adjective Element, seventh of the Adverbial Element, 
eighth of the Objective Element. 

32. What now must be done with these lessons? The 
learner must turn back upon them and master them. 

LESSON XXI. 

The Sentence and the Element. 

Repeat the lessons upon the Sentence and the Element, 
forty-four questions. 

LESSON XXII. 

The Absolute and Subject Elements. 

Repeat the lessons upon the Absolute Element and the 
Subject, forty-four questions. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 265 

LESSON XXIII. 

The Pkedicate and Adverbial Elements. 

Repeat the lessons upon the Predicate and Adverbial 
Elements, forty-four questions. 

LESSON XXIV. 

The Adjective and Objective Elements. 

Eepeat the lessons upon the Adjective and Objective 
Elements, forty-four questions. 

LESSON XXV. 

The Element. 
Repeat the first four lessons, eighty-eight questions. 

LESSON XXVI. 

The Element Continued. 
Repeat the last four lessons, eighty-eight questions. 

LESSON XXVII. 

The Sentence and Element. 

Repeat the entire one hundred and seventy -six questions 
and continue this, until they are absolutely mastered. 

LESSON XXVIII. 

The Sentence and Element Continued. 

1. Compose two sentences each having all the elements. 
Joseph, hungry horses eat oats greedily. Gentlemen, great 
chemists demonstrate principles thoroughly. 

2. Write three other examples. 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Compose one haying a compound subject. Lions, 
tigers, wolves and dears eat flesh. 

4. Write three other examples. 

5. Compose one having a compound predicate. William 
dances, sings, reads and speaks well. 

6. Write three other examples. 

7. Compose one haying a compound objective element. 
Horses eat hay, oats, corn and grass. 

8. Write three other examples. 

9. What is the point of likeness ? 

10. Compose one having a compound adjective element. 
The same tree sometimes contains green, yelloio, orange and 
red leaves. 

11. Compose three other examples. 

12. In what are these sometimes alike ? 

13. Compose one having a compound adverbial element. 
The waves roll loftily, ceaselessly, grandly and frightfully. 

14. Compose three others. 

15. In what are they alike ? 

16. Compose a sentence having a compound absolute ele- 
ment. Susan, Karl, Ann, Eachel and Pearl ; come to your 
books. 

17. Compose a sentence having all the elements and each 
compound. Brothers, friends and neighbors, bright, gay 
and happy men, women and children easily, joyfully, play- 
fully and constantly hunted, found, plucked and enjoyed 
ferns, lilies, violets and mistletoe. 

18. Compose another example. 

19. In what are these alike ? 

LESSON XXIX. 

The Sentence and Element Continued. 

1. Give a sentence with a complex subject. Good toys 
will study. 

2. Compose three other examples. 

3. Show how they are alike. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 267 

4. Compose a sentence having a complex predicate. The 
boys study diligently. 

5. Write three other examples. 

6. Show in what they are alike. 

7. Compose one haying a complex adjective element. The 
soldiers, Hack with rage, marched forward. 

8. Compose three other examples. 

9. In what are these alike ? They are alike in having a 
complex adjective element. 

10. Compose one having a complex objective element. The 
king killed a black lion. 

11. Compose three other examples. 

12. In what are these alike ? 

13. Compose one having a complex adverbial element. The 
tiger fights very jiercely. 

14. Write three other examples. 

15. In what are these alike ? 

16. Compose a sentence containing all the elements, each 
element being complex. Good friends, John of Boston rode 
a purely black horse very fast. 

17. Compose three other examples. 

18. In what are they alike ? 

19. Compose a sentence containing all the elements and 
each element compound with complex members. Good 
sons, good friends and good brothers; John of Boston, 
James of Richmond and Joseph of Mobile right eagerly, 
very swiftly and too hotly pursued, easily arrested, cruelly 
maltreated and fearfully beat an experienced burglar, a bold 
thief, a daring villain and a very cruel, very fearless and 
very bloody murderer. 

20. Compose another example. 

21. In what are they alike ? 

LESSON XXX. 
The Proposition. — Kinds oe Elements. 

1. What is a Proposition ? A proposition is a thought 
expressed in words. 



268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Illustrate. Hungry horses eat oats greedily. Wolves 
prowl at night. 

3. How are the elements of a proposition divided ? Ele- 
ments are divided into two classes, principal and subor- 
dinate. 

4. What are the principal elements? The subject and 
the predicate are the principal elements, because without 
them a sentence cannot be formed. 

5. What are the subordinate elements ? The subordinate 
elements are the Objective, the Adjective, the Adverbial and 
the Absolute. 

6. Illustrate. In the sentence " Karl, bring the red book 
quickly.", the principal elements, subject and predicate, are 
"thou bring" with "thou" understood. To these the 
absolute element " Karl," the objective element " the red 
book," the adverbial element " quickly " and the adjective 
elements " red " and " the " sustain certain relations directly 
or indirectly. 

7. Give and explain other illustrations. 

8. What relations subsist between the principal and sub- 
ordinate elements ? The subordinate elements sustain rela- 
tions of limitation and sometimes of connection and some- 
times of government to the principal elements. 

9. Illustrate how the subordinate limit the principal ele- 
ments. In the sentence " The panther screamed fearfully.", 
" the " limits "panther," the subject, and " fearfully " limits 
" screamed," the predicate. 

10. Give and explain other illustrations. 

11. Illustrate how the subordinate may govern the prin- 
cipal elements. In the sentence " Karl, bring the book.", 
"thou" understood, the subject, is of the second person, 
singular number and masculine gender, because its antece- 
dent " Karl " has these properties. Therefore, as " Karl " 
determines or controls three of the properties of "thou," 
this is a clear case of government of the subject by the abso- 
lute element. 

12. Give and explain other illustrations. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 269 

13. Illustrate how the subordinate may connect the prin- 
cipal elements. In the sentence " Turkeys pick, where they 
scratch.", " where," an adverbial element limiting " pick " 
and " scratch," has also a connecting power and connects 
these same predicates. This is a clear case of an adverbial 
element sustaining the relation of connection to two prin- 
cipal elements. 

14. Give and explain other illustrations. 

15. What is the most important relation existing between 
the subordinate and the principal elements ? The great use 
of the subordinate elements is to limit the subject and pre- 
dicate. 

16. How do the subordinate elements limit the principal 
elements? The subordinate elements limit the principal 
elements, the subject and predicate, either directly or indi- 
rectly. 

17. Illustrate. In the sentence " The bird sings very 
sweetly.", "the" limits "bird" and "sweetly" limits 
"sings" directly but "very" limits "sings" indirectly, 
because it first limits " sweetly " and then " sweetly " limits 
" sings." 

18. Which of the subordinate elements sustain relations 
to the subject ? The adjective and absolute elements sus- 
tain relations to the subject. 

19. Which of the subordinate elements sustain relations 
to the predicate? The objective and adverbial elements 
sustain relations to the predicate. 

20. Why is the absolute element so called ? This element 
is so called, because it never sustains any relation to the pre- 
dicate of its sentence. 

21. May the subordinate elements limit each other? 
Since the subordinate elements often limit the subject and 
predicate indirectly, they must just as often limit each other. 
The adjective and objective elements may limit each other 
and the adverbial may limit the adverbial and adjective ele- 
ments and the adjective may limit the absolute element. 

22. Give an adjective limiting an objective element. In 



270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the sentence " James saw a flock of birds.", " of birds " is an 
adjective element limiting the object " flock." 

23. Give other illustrations. 

24. Give an objective limiting an adjective element. In 
the sentence " The mouse, nibbling the box, kept me awake.", 
" the box" is an objective element limiting an adjective ele- 
ment. 

25. Give other illustrations. 

26. Give an adverbial limiting an adverbial element. In 
the sentence " The birds sing very sweetly.", " very " is an 
adverbial element limiting the adverbial element " sweetly." 

27. Give other illustrations. 

28. Give an adverbial limiting an adjective element. In 
the sentence " The night was very dark.", " very " is an 
adverbial element limiting the adjective element " dark." 

29. Give other illustrations. 

30. Give an adjective element limiting an absolute. In 
the sentence " Good friends, come with me.", "good" is an 
adjective element limiting "friends," which is an absolute 
base. 

31. Give other illustrations. 

32. When is an element of the first class ? An element 
is said to be of the first class, when its base consists of a 
word. 

33. Illustrate. In the sentence " John of Boston came 
home.", the subject "John of Boston" is of the first class, 
because its base " John " consists of a single word. In the 
sentence "Black ink is most used.", " Black ink " the subject 
is of the first class, because its base "ink" consists of a single 
word. 

34. Give other illustrations. 

35. When is an element of the second class ? An element 
is said to be of the second class, when its base consists of a 
'phrase, 

36. Illustrate. In the sentence "Men of great wisdom 
are praised.", " of great wisdom " is an element of the second 
class, because its base "of wisdom" is a phrase. In the 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 271 

sentence " Officers of the highest rank receive the largest 
pay.", " of the highest rank " is an element of the second 
class, because its base " of rank " consists of a phrase. 

37. Give and explain another example. 

38. How is this like the first ? 

39. When is an element of the third class ? An element 
is said to be of the third class, when its base consists of a 
clause. 

40. Illustrate. In the sentence " Men, who have acquired 
great wisdom, are praised.", " who have acquired great wis- 
dom" is an adjective element of the third class: because its 
base " who have acquired " consists of a clause ; made up of 
subject, predicate and connective. 

41. Compose another illustration and explain it. 

42. How is it like the other ? 

LESSON XXXI. 

The Phkase. 

1. What is a Phrase? A phrase consists of two words 
not capable of being separated into base and modifier but 
both being required to form the base of an element. 

2. Illustrate. In the sentence " Seeing the enemy they 
flew to arms.", " to arms" is a phrase but " seeing the enemy" 
is merely an expression and not a phrase. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. How many kinds of phrases are there ? There are two 
kinds of phrases, Prepositional Phrases and Infinitive 
Phrases, 

5. Illustrate. In the sentence "He wished to run to 
arms.", "to run " is an infinitive phrase and "to arms" is a 
prepositional phrase. 

6. Give other examples. 

7. Explain the similarity of them. 

8. What is a prepositional phrase? A prepositional 
phrase is an element, in which the base or principal part is a 
preposition and its object. 



272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. Illustrate. In the expression " Men of great wealth," 
" of great wealth " is a prepositional phrase; because it is an 
element, having a preposition and its object " of wealth " for 
its base. 

10. Write two other illustrations. 

11. Compare them. 

12. What is an infinitive phrase ? An infinitive phrase is 
an element, whose base is an infinitive and its sign. 

13. Illustrate. In the sentence "John wished to thor- 
oughly learn his lesson.", " to thoroughly learn his lesson " 
is an infinitive phrase ; because it is an element, whose base 
is the infinitive and its sign " to learn." 

14. Write another example. 

15. Compare the example written with the preceding. 

16. Are phrases ever separable in analysis? Phrases are 
separable in parsing but never in analysis. Those expres- 
sions, whose words can be separated into base and modifier, 
are not phrases at all. 

17. Illustrate. In a former illustration "Seeing the 
enemy they flew to arms.", "seeing the enemy" is not a 
phrase. 

18. Why are these expressions not phrases ? Phrases are 
always elements of the second class. These expressions are 
not elements of the second but of the first class, because 
their bases are single words. Therefore they are not phrases. 

19. In what sense are they called phrases ? In common 
conversation these expressions are called phrases to distin- 
guish them from clauses. 

LESSON XXXII. 

The Phrase Continued. 

1. Write a noun limited by a simple adjective element of 
the second class. Birds in trees. 

2. Write four other examples. 

3. Compare them with the example above. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 273 

4. Why is "in trees" a simple adjective element? "In 
trees" is a simple element; because it contains no word, 
but such as are essential to the phrase. 

5. What is essential to a phrase ? A preposition and its 
object or an infinitive and its sign are the essential parts of 
a phrase. 

6. Write a noun limited by a complex adjective element 
of the second class. Birds in green trees. 

7. Give other examples like the above. 

8. Why is this element complex ? This element is com- 
plex ; because it contains a limiting word, which is not 
essential to the phrase. 

9. What is a complex element ? A complex element con- 
sists of a single element or base, some part of which is lim- 
ited by one or more modifiers. 

10. What is a complex adjective element? A complex 
adjective element consists of a single adjective base, some 
part of which is limited by one or more modifiers. 

11. What is the base of a phrase or element of the second 
class ? The base of a phrase is the preposition and its object 
or the infinitive and its sign. 

12. Why are these the base of a phrase ? The preposition and 
its object or the infinitive and its sign constitute the base of 
a phrase, because they are the essential parts of the phrase. 

13. Why is not the base of a phrase less than the preposi- 
tion and its object ? The base could not be less, because 
these are necessary to the existence of the phrase. 

14. Why is not the base more than the preposition and its 
object? The base is not more, because no more is necessary 
to constitute the phrase and the phrase is complete without 
anything more. 

15. What are all the other words of the phrase ? All the 
other words of the phrase are modifiers of some part of it. 

16. What is the base of the element "In green trees"? 
The base of this element is " in trees." 

17. Why is this the base? "In trees" is the base; be- 
cause it is the chief part of the element, in which it stands, 
and gives it its name. 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

18. Why is not the base less than " in trees " ? Because 
it requires the preposition and its object to form the phrase. 

19. Why is not the base more than "in trees"? Because 
the preposition and its object are all that is required to form 
the phrase. 

20. What is the modifier of the base ? " Green " is the 
modifier of the base " trees " because it limits it. 

21. Does "green" limit the entire base "in trees"? 
" Green," to limit the entire base " in trees," would have to 
be an adverbial element, since only adverbial can limit 
adjective elements. 

22. What then does "green" limit? "Green" limits 
only a part of the base " trees " and hence verifies the defi- 
nition of a complex element. 

23. Give one limited by a compound adjective element of 
the second class. % Compound elements, as such, have no 
class. Class attaches to their members separately. So this 
need not be given. 

24. Give a sentence containing a simple, a complex and a 
compound element of the second class. Birds of song flit 
about in groves of green trees', where they sing songs of 
sweet melody, of merry gladness, of buoyant joy and of 
thankful praise. 

25. Compose four other examples. 

26. Compare them. 

LESSON XXXIII. 

The Clause. 

1. What is a clause ? The different propositions of a 
complex sentence are called clauses. 

2. Illustrate. In the sentence " An army is more efficient, 
when the men love their commanders.", these two proposi- 
tions are called clauses. 

3. What is the principal division of clauses ? Clauses are 
first divided into two classes, principal and subordinate. 

4. What is a principal clause ? A principal clause makes 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 275 

complete sense, when separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence. 

5. Illustrate. In the sentence " He, that loves, is loved.", 
"he is loved" is the principal clause, because it makes 
complete sense separated from the rest of the sentence. 

6. Write other illustrations. 

7. What is a subordinate clause? A subordinate clause 
is one, which does not make complete sense separated from 
the rest of the sentence. 

8. Illustrate. In the same sentence " He, that loves, is 
loved.", " that loves " is the subordinate clause, because it 
will not make complete sense separated from the rest of the 
sentence. 

9. Write other examples. 

10. In what are these alike ? 

11. What are the essential parts of a principal clause ? 
The essential parts of a principal clause are the subject and 
the predicate, because no sentence can have an existence 
without them. 

12. What are the essential parts of a subordinate clause ? 
The essential parts of a subordinate clause are the subject, 
the predicate and the connective. 

13. Why is the connective essential to a subordinate 
clause ? As an ox cannot draw a load without being yoked 
to another, so a subordinate clause must be connected with 
a principal clause by a connective, before it will make sense. 

14. Illustrate. In the sentence "Joseph studies, that 
he may learn.", " he may learn " must be joined to the prin- 
cipal clause "Joseph studies" by the connective "that," 
before it will make sense. 

15. Give another illustration. 

16. In what are they alike ? 

LESSON XXXIV. 

The Complex Sentence. 

1. When is a book very difficult to read and understand ? 
A book is very difficult, when it is very complex. 



276 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

2. Give examples of complex and difficult composition. 
The Paradise Lost, Demosthenes de Corona and Butler's 
Analogy. 

3. When is a literary work complex ? A literary work is 
complex when its books are complex. 

4. Why are the books complex ? The books are complex, 
because their chapters are complex. 

5. Why are the chapters complex? The chapters are 
complex, because the sections are complex. 

6. Why are the sections complex? The sections are 
complex, because their paragraphs or stanzas are complex. 

7. Why are the paragraphs complex ? The paragraphs 
or stanzas are complex ; because the sentences, of which they 
are composed, are complex. 

8. Would a book composed chiefly of simple sentences be 
difficult? A book composed chiefly of simple sentences 
would not be difficult. 

9. Illustrate. Take for example children's First Eeaders 
in all languages. 

10. Would a book composed of compound sentences with 
simple members be difficult? A book composed of com- 
pound sentences with simple members would not be diffi- 
cult. 

11. Where then reside the difficulties of language? The 
difficulties of language beside in the complex sentence. 

12. Do the difficulties of a complex sentence reside in its 
principal clause? They do not, because the principal 
clause is always a simple sentence. 

13. To what then have we traced the difficulties of lan- 
guage ? The principal source of difficulty in language then 
is the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. 

14. Illustrate. In Latin, Ut with the Subjunctive', in 
Greek, The Conditional Clause ; in Latin and Greek, The 
Accusative with the Infinitive and other kinds of subordi- 
nate clauses are examples of language's difficulties. 

15. How many subordinate clauses are there in English 
Prose and Poetry? There are many millions of such 
clauses. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 277 

16. Into how many classes can these subordinate clauses 
be divided ? All the subordinate clauses in English can be 
reduced to sixteen classes. 

17. Name the kinds or classes of clauses. The Conces- 
sive, the Final, the Local, the Causal, the Consecutive, the 
Temporal, the Subject, the Predicate, the Objective, the 
Appositive, the Comparative, the Modal, the Eelative or 
Pronominal, the Interrogative, the Conditional and the Cor- 
relative Clauses. 

18. How are the subordinate clauses of the language clas- 
sified ? The subordinate clauses are classified according to 
their meanings and their connectives. 

19. Illustrate. In the sentence " John studies, that he 
may learn.," " that he may learn " is a final clause, because 
it denotes aim or purpose and has a final connective. 

LESSON XXXV. 

The Complex Sentence Continued.— Kinds oe 

Clauses. 

1. Have all the clauses connectives ? Twelve clauses 
have connectives and four have not. 

2. Give the four, that have no connectives. The subject 
clause, the appositive clause, the predicate clause and the 
correlative clause have no connectives. 

3. Give the twelve, that have connectives. The relative, 
the interrogative, the objective, the concessive, the condi- 
tional, the consecutive, the comparative, the final, the modal, 
the causal, the temporal and the local have connectives. 

4. What is the subject clause ? The subject clause is a 
proposition used as the subject of a verb. 

5. Illustrate. How the battle will terminate, is not known. 
Whether frost falls or forms on the earth, has been a ques- 
tion. 

6. Compose three other examples. 

7. Show the point of likeness. 



278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. What is the appositive clause ? The appositive clause 
is a proposition used as an appositive. 

9. Illustrate. The question What is a lie ? is hard to 
answer. 

10. Write other examples. 

11. Show, in what they are alike. 

12. What is the predicate clause? The predicate clause 
is a proposition used as a predicate. 

13. Illustrate. A good maxim is Til never be late. 

14. Write three other examples. 

15. Show how they are analogous. 

16. What are correlative clauses? Correlative clauses are 
propositions, which mutually limit each other as elements 
of the third class. 

17. What kind of elements are correlative clauses ? Cor- 
relative clauses are adverbial elements of the third class. 

18. Illustrate. The faster the train runs, the more mile- 
posts it passes. The older he grows, the more he knows. 

19. Which element of " The faster the train runs " does 
" the more mile-posts it passes" limit ? This clause limits 
the adverbial element " The faster." 

20. Which element of "the more mile-posts it passes" 
does " The faster the train runs " limit ? This clause 
limits the adverbial element " the more." 

21. What is the relative or pronominal clause? The 
relative clause is one introduced by a relative or connective 
pronoun as its connective. 

22. Illustrate. He, that hates, is hated. Philosophers, 
who study the stars, are called astronomers. 

23. Give three other illustrations. 

24. In what are they alike? 

25. What is an interrogative clause? An interrogative 
clause is an indirect question, connected with the principal 
clause by an interrogative word. 

26. Illustrate. The senate inquired, whether the army had 
been moved. 

27. What is the difference between the interrogative 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 279 

clause and the interrogative sentence ? The clause is a part 
of a complex sentence and the other is an entire simple sen- 
tence. 

28. What explanation is necessary here? Interrogative 
clauses seem to be often also objective. 

29. Give another illustration. The consul doubted 
whether the enemy would fight. 

30. Give another. The general asked why the enemy did 
not fight. 

31. Give other illustrations. 

LESSON XXXVI. 

The Complex Sentence Continued. — Kinds of 
Clauses Continued. 

1. What is an Objective Clause? An objective clause is 
a proposition used as the object of a transitive verb and 
introduced generally by the connective that. 

2. Illustrate. The scout reports, that the enemy is ad- 
vancing. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. In what are these alike ? 

5. What is the concessive clause ? A concessive clause 
is one, which grants something or makes a concession and 
is introduced by a concessive connective such as though. 

6. Illustrate. " I will trust in Him, though He slay me" 

7. Give other illustrations. 

8. Point out the analogy between the examples. 

9. What is the conditional clause ? A conditional clause 
is one expressing a condition and joined to its principal by 
a conditional connective such as if, unless, except, ivhether. 

10. Illustrate. He would be more happy, if he were 
wiser. 

11. Give other illustrations. 

12. Show their analogy. 

13. How is this clause used in Etymology ? This clause 



280 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

is used in etymology as a paraphrase or substitute for the 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

14. Why is this clause, used as a paraphrase for this mood ? 
Because there is no simple form for this mood in English as 
in some other languages. 

15. Why is this clause suitable ? The conditional clause 
is a substitute or a suitable paraphrase for the subjunctive 
mood, because it expresses the abstract idea of the verb con- 
ditionally or under conditions. 

16. What is the consecutive clause? The consecutive 
clause denotes a consequence and is joined to its principal 
by consecutive connectives such as that. 

17. Illustrate. He was so injured, that he died. 

18. Give other examples. 

19. Compare them. 

20. What is the comparative clause ? A comparative 
clause is one denoting a comparison and introduced by a 
comparative connective such as than. 

21. Illustrate. John can walk faster, than James can run. 

22. Give other illustrations. 

23. Show their analogy. 

24. What is the final clause? The final clause denotes 
aim or purpose and is introduced by a final connective such 
as that, in order that etc. 

25. Illustrate. I have come, that I may assist you. 

26. Give other illustrations. 

27. Show their analogy. 

28. What is a modal clause? A modal clause is one, 
which expresses manner and is joined to its principal by a 
modal connective such as as. 

29. He died, as he had lived. 

30. Give other illustrations. 

31. What is the analogy between them? The analogy 
between these illustrations is, that they all contain modal 

introduced by modal connectives. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 281 

LESSON XXXVII. 

The Complex Sentence Continued. — Kinds of 
Clauses Continued. 

1. What is the Causal Clause ? The. causal clause denotes 
cause or reason and is joined to its principal by a causal 
connective such as because, for etc. 

2. Illustrate. He is honored, for he is wise. 

3. Give three other examples. 

4. Show their analogy. 

5. What is the temporal clause? The temporal clause 
denotes time and is joined to its principal by a temporal con- 
nective such as when etc. 

6. Illustrate. He eats, when he is hungry. 

7. Give three other examples. 

8. In what are these analogous ? 

9. What is the local clause? The local clause denotes 
place and is joined to its principal by a local connective such 
as where, ivhither etc. 

10. Illustrate. We should go, where duty calls us. 

11. Give three other illustrations. 

12. In what are these examples analogous ? 

13. When is an element of the third class ? An element 
is of the third class, when it consists of a clause. 

14. Illustrate. How many elements of the third class 
might be found in English Prose and Poetry ? There are 
many millions of them. 

15. How may these be arranged ? These elements may be 
arranged into sixteen classes corresponding to the classes of 
clauses. 

16. How may these again be arranged? These sixteen 
clauses or elements of the third class may be arranged into the 
ordinary five different classes, the Subject, the Predicate, the 
Adjective, the Adverbial, the Objective and the Absolute 
Elements. 

17. How many of the sixteen are subject elements? 
There is one, the subject clause. 



282 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

18. How many are predicate elements ? There is one, 
the predicate clause. 

19. How many of th.e sixteen are adjective elements? 
There are two, the relative clause and the appositiye clause. 

20. How many of the sixteen are objective elements ? 
There are two, the objective clause and generally the inter- 
rogative clause. 

21. How many are adverbial elements? Ten of the six- 
teen are adverbial elements. 

22. Name them. The Local, the Temporal, the Causal, 
the Final, the Concessive, the Consecutive, the Modal, the 
Comparative, the Correlative and the Conditional. 

23. How else may these sixteen clauses be arranged? 
These clauses may again be arranged into two classes, prin- 
cipal elements and subordinate elements. 

24. How many of them are principal elements? Two of 
them are principal elements, the subject clause and the 
predicate clause. 

25. How many are subordinate elements? The other 
fourteen are subordinate elements. 

26. By what general name may these fourteen elements 
be called and known? These fourteen elements may be 
known by the general name of " The subordinate clause." 

27. What is the office of the subordinate clause ? The 
office of the subordinate clause is to limit some element of 
the principal clause. 

28. What is a complex sentence? A complex sentence 
consists of a principal clause, some element of which is lim- 
ited by one or more subordinate clauses. 

LESSON XXXVIII. 

The Complex Sentence Continued. — The Subordinate 
Clause Continued. 

1. Which elements of the principal clause does the subor- 
dinate clause always limit ? The subordinate clause always 
limits the subject or predicate directly or indirectly. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 283 

2. How can the subordinate clause limit the subject or 
predicate indirectly? The subordinate clause can limit 
them indirectly by limiting the modifiers of them or the 
modifiers of their modifiers and so on. 

3. Can the subordinate clause then limit directly both the 
principal and subordinate elements of the principal clause ? 
Either the subject, the predicate, the adjective, the adver- 
bial or the objective element of the principal clause may 
have a subordinate clause modifying or limiting its meaning. 

4. Give a sentence having its subject limited by a subor- 
dinate clause. Men, who hunt tigers, incur danger. 

5. Compose two other examples. 

6. Compare them. 

7. Give a sentence having its predicate limited by a sub- 
ordinate clause. Men incur danger, when they hunt tigers, 

8. Write three more examples. 

9. Show the analogy. 

10. Give a sentence having an adjective element limited 
by a subordinate clause. Men ; fearful, when beasts howl ; 
are poor tiger hunters. 

11. Compose three other examples. 

12. Compare the examples. 

13. Give a sentence having an adverbial element limited 
by a subordinate clause. Men hunt tigers cautiously, because 
they are dangerous. 

14. How does "because they are dangerous" limit the 
predicate here? " Because they are dangerous" limits this 
predicate indirectly. It limits "cautiously" and "cau- 
tiously" limits the predicate "hunt." 

15. Compose three other examples. 

16. Compare the examples. 

17. Give a sentence having an objective element limited 
by a subordinate clause. Men hunt the tigers, which infest 
the jungles. 

18. Compose three other examples. 

19. Compare them. 

20. Give a sentence having each of its elements limited by 



284: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a subordinate clause. Men, who love sport, careless, where 
they find it, when they go to India, hunt the tigers, that 
lurk in the jungles, cautiously, because they are dangerous, 

21. Give another example. 

22. Compare them. 

LESSON XXXIX. 

The Complex Sentence Continued.— The Subordi- 
nate Clause Continued. 

1. May the element of the third class be simple, complex 
or compound? The element of the third class or the sub- 
ordinate clause may be simple, complex or compound. 
Class, however, attaches not to the compound element but 
to its members separately. 

2. Illustrate. In the sentence " Men ; who saiv the appa- 
rition, who touched its hair, ivho looked into its eyes and who 
even felt its warm breath ; ought to be believed.", not the 
compound relative or pronominal clause but its separate 
members are of the third class. 

3. Compose another example. 

4. Compare the examples. 

5. Give a sentence having the verb limited by a simple 
adverbial element of the third class. Caesar conquered, when 
he came. 

6. Write another example like this. 

7. Why are these elements of the third class simple? 
They are simple elements; because they contain nothing 
but, what is essential to a clause. 

8. What is essential to a subordinate clause ? The subject, 
predicate and connective are the essential parts of a subordi- 
nate clause. 

9. Give a sentence containing a verb limited by a com- 
plex element of the third class. Caesar conquered, when he 
came ivith his army. 

10. Compose another example like the above. 



SENTENCE- ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 285 

11. Compare these examples. 

12. Why is this element " when he came with his army" 
complex? This element is complex, because it contains 
more than, what is essential to a clause. 

13. What is the base of a clause or element of the third 
class ? The base of an element of the third class is the sub- 
ject, predicate and connective. 

14. Why are these the base ? The subject, predicate and 
connective are the base of an element of the third class, 
because these are the essential parts of the element. 

15. Why cannot the base be less than these ? The base 
cannot be less than the subject, predicate and the connec- 
tive, because it requires these to constitute the clause. 

16. Why is not the base more than these ? The base can- 
not be more than these, because it does not require anything 
more to constitute the clause and the clause is complete 
without any other words. 

17. What are all the other words of the clause ? The 
other words of the clause are all modifiers of some one of its 
elements. 

18. What is the base of this element of the third class ? 
" When he came " is the base. 

19. Why is " when he came " the base ? This is the base : 
because these words; the subject, predicate and connective; 
are the essential parts of a subordinate clause and because 
from them the clause takes its name. 

20. Why is not anything less the base? Because it 
requires these to constitute the clause. 

21. Why is nothing more the base ? Because this is all, 
that is required to constitute the clause. 

LESSON XL. 

The Complex Sentence Continued. — The Subordi- 
nate Clause Continued. 

1. In the last example, what does the modifier " with his 



286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

army" limit? This modifier limits not the entire element 
but the verb or predicate " came" 

2. Write another example. 

3. Compare them. 

4. Give a sentence containing a verb limited by a com- 
pound adverbial element of the third class. " Caesar ; when 
the scouts had returned, when he had talked with Labienus, 
when he had exhorted the soldiers and when he had sent lack 
all the horses ; commenced the battle." 

5. Is this compound element of the third class ? Not the 
element as a whole but its separate members are of the third 
class. 

6. Give a sentence containing a verb limited by a simple, 
a complex and a compound adverbial element of the third 
class. 'While John followed, the dog, when he had once 
scented the blood, chased the deer, where a horse could not 
go, where no hunter had taken a stand, where the yelping 
could not be heard and where it could never be found, 

7. What is the base of the simple element ? " While John 
followed" is the^base of the simple element. 

8. What are the modifiers ? There are no modifiers. 

9. What is the base of the complex element? "When he 
had scented " is the base of this element. 

10. What are the modifiers ? The modifiers are " once " 
and "the blood." 

11. What is the base of the first member of the compound 
element? "Where horse could go" is the base of this 
member. 

12. What are the modifiers? " A" and "not" are the 
modifiers. 

13. What are the base and modifiers of the second mem- 
ber ? The base is " where hunter had taken " and the 
modifiers are "no" and "a stand." 

14. What are the base and modifiers of the third member ? 
The base is " where yelping could be heard" and the mod- 
ifiers are " the " and " not." 

15. What are the base and modifiers of the fourth mem- 



SENTENCE- ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 287 

ber? The base is "where it could be found" and the 
modifier is " never." 

16. What elements of these bases do the respective mod- 
ifiers limit ? 

17. Compose and explain another example. 

18. Give a sentence containing a subject clause. When 
Demosthenes will he excelled in oratory, is uncertain. 

19. Write three others. 

20. In what are they alike ? 

21. Give a sentence containing a predicate clause. The 
query is, what mil become of the poor, 

22. Write three others. 

23. In what are they alike ? 

24. Give a sentence containing a consecutive clause. The 
bear growled so terribly, that he frightened the dogs. 

25. Compose three others. 

26. Compare them. 

27. Give a sentence containing an objective clause. 
Anthony said, that Brutus was an honorable man. 

28. Write three others. 

29. Compare them. 

30. Give a sentence containing a conditional clause. If 
the train is on time, I will go. 

31. Write three others. 

32. Compare them. 

33. Give a sentence containing a comparative clause. 
You can swim faster than I can walk. 

34. Give three other examples. 

35. In what are these analogous ? 

LESSON XLI. 

The Complex Sentence Continued. — The Subordinate 
Clause Continued. 

1. Give a sentence containing a correlative clause. The 
more you strive, the sooner you will succeed. 

2. Write three other examples. 



288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. In what are they like the above ? 

4. G-ive a sentence containing an appositive clause. The 
question, what is electricity f, will puzzle the wisest. 

5. Compose three others. 

6. Compare them. 

7. Write a sentence containing an interrogative clause or 
indirect question. The sentinel inquired, who came there. 

8. Compose three others. 

9. Compare them. 

10. Give a sentence containing a relative or pronominal 
clause. Philanthropists are those, who study the welfare of 
mankind. 

11. Write three other examples. 

12. Compare them. 

13. G-ive a sentence containing a concessive clause. 
Though I may never return, I will march to the defence of 
my country. 

14. Write three others. 

15. Compare them. 

16. Give a sentence containing a local clause. The tree 
lies, where it falls. 

17. Write three others. 

18. Compare them and show, in what they are analogous. 

19. G-ive a sentence containing a temporal clause. The 
sap rises, when spring comes. 

20. Write three others. 

21. Compare them and show their analogy. 

22. Give a sentence containing a causal clause. The 
soldiers will conquer, for they are brave. 

23. Write three others. 

24. Compare them. 

25. Give a sentence containing a modal clause. Men 
should live, as they wish to die. 

26. Compose three others. 

27. Show, in what they are alike. 

28. Give a sentence containing a final clause. I have 
made sacrifice, that I might assist you. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OE SYNTAX. 289 

29. Give three other examples. 

30. Compare them. 

LESSON XLII. 

Limitation" of Elements. 

1. What is meant by one element limiting another? 
"When an element or term is too general, it can be rendered 
less general and more specific by haying another element 
added to it. 

2. Illustrate. The term "men" is general, because it 
includes all classes, but " men of London " is specific or par- 
ticular in its meaning, because it specifies the particular 
class of men. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. Explain. If an orator, speaking to a thousand persons, 
should utter the word bird and then stop ; there would be 
as many ideas as hearers as to the kind of bird, because 
bird is a general term, but, if he should add the adjective 
element of prey, this would limit the general term to a par- 
ticular class, remove the doubt and satisfy every mind. 

5. Explain further. If an owner had a hundred grass- 
lots for his horse but should close the gates and confine 
him to the first, the horse would be limited from a hundred 
lots to one. 

6. What is a limit ? In this case the limit is the fence 
but figuratively it is any boundary. 

7. Illustrate. In the expression " Bird of prey " the 
adjective element "of prey" puts a boundary around 
" bird " so, that it can apply but to one class. 

8. What is meant by a term being general ? By a term 
being general is meant, that it embraces a great many 
smaller classes and very many individual objects belonging 
to each class. 

9. How is a general term formed ? A general term is 
formed by classification or generalization, which can be 
learned by the study of logic. 



290 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

10. What is generalization ? Generalization is collecting 
individuals into classes or species and these classes or species 
into genera or higher classes and these into higher and so 
on ; until the general class of classes or even the universal, 
all embracing class is reached. 

11. What is the difference between a general and a uni- 
versal term? A universal term embraces and contains all 
possible individuals, whereas a general term embraces and 
contains only a majority and not necessarily all of them. 

12. Give a general term or genus. American citizen is 
a general or a genus, because it embraces many classes and 
many individuals. 

13. Give and explain other illustrations. 

14. Give a universal or universal term. Man is a uni- 
versal classification, because it embraces all classes and all 
individuals. 

15. Give another universal. Being is a universal, be- 
cause it embraces all genera, all classes and all individuals 
of all things. 

16. What is going up from individuals to generals called ? 
Going from individuals to generals is called synthesis. 

17. What is going back from generals or universals to 
individuals called ? Going back from generals to individ- 
uals is called analysis. 

18. Do individual terms need limiting? Individual 
terms do not need limiting, because they are sufficiently 
specific or particular. 

19. How much limiting do general terms need ? The 
more general . terms or elements are, the more limiting they 
require to make them specific or particular. 

20. Illustrate. In the expression " John lives," limit the 
predicate "lives" by four elements. First "John lives in 
the city" second " John lives in the city of New York" third 
"John lives in the city of New York on Broadway" and 
fourth " John lives in the city of New York on Broadway at 
No. 88." 

21. Give and explain another example. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 291 

22. How much does the element white placed before oak 
limit its meaning ? The term " oak " embraces hundreds of 
varieties or classes but "white" limits it from these hundreds 
of kinds to one kind or class. 

23. Give and explain another example. 

24. How much does the element beech placed before the 
general term tree limit its meaning ? The term " tree " 
embraces all kinds, but " beech " limits it from thousands 
of kinds to one kind, " beech tree." 

25. Give and explain other examples. 

26. What is the foundation of analysis ? The limitation 
of one word or element by another is the foundation of 
analysis. 

LESSON XLIII. 

The Application of Punctuation. 

1. Copy and punctuate this sentence. " 3, 3, 5 and 9 ; 5, 5, 
5 and 5; 10, 5 and 5 ; 5, 2, 7 and 6 each make 20 : 4, 4, 4 and 
IS; 10, 10, 5 and 5; 6, 4, 10 and 10; 12, 12 and 6 each 
make 30 : 10, 10, 10 and 10 ; 5, 5, 5 and 25 ; 20, 10 and 10 ; 
20, 5, 5 and 10 each make 40: 10, 10, 10 and 20; 20, 20 and 
10; 25, 10, 5 and 10 ; 15, 15, 5 and 15 each make 50." 

2. For what are the commas used in this sentence ? The 
commas are used for conjunctions to connect the simple 
members of the lowest compounds. 

3. Why is there no comma between the last two members? 
There is no comma here, because the conjunction is present 
to stand for itself. 

4. For what are the semicolons used in this sentence? 
The semicolons are used for the conjunction to connect 
these smallest compounds and make the next higher com- 
pounds. 

5. Why is the semicolon used everywhere here and the 
conjunction nowhere? The conjunction is used in the first 
compound with the connecting force of a comma and, as its 
use for the semicolon in the same sentence would create 



292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

confusion and ambiguity, it is left out and the point placed 
between all the members according to the Latin rule. 

6. For what is the colon used in this sentence ? In this 
sentence the colon is used for the conjunction to connect the 
four great compound members into an entire sentence. 

7. Why is the colon used between all the members and 
the conjunction left out ? As the conjunction is used in the 
first compounds with only the connecting force of a comma, 
its use here for the colon would create ambiguity and con- 
fuse the reader. Its use with the force of a comma is 
incompatible with its use with the connecting force of a 
colon in the same sentence. 

8. What does this sentence illustrate ? It illustrates the 
use of points for the conjunction. 

9. Copy and punctuate this sentence. " Caesar finally con- 
quered Gaul : although the conclusion of the war had been 
retarded for seven years; because the inhabitants, who 
lived remote from the weakening refinements, were very brave 
and stubborn." 

10. What is the last point in this sentence ? The last 
point in this sentence is a comma between "refinements" 
and " were." 

11. For what is this comma used ? This comma and the 
one occurring between " Gaul " and " who " constitute a 
pair and are used for the parenthesis to cut off the relative 
clause, at the beginning and end of which they are placed, 
from its base. 

12. Why do both commas of the pair appear ? They both 
appear, because the relative clause falls within the body of 
its base or principal clause. 

13. What point is next to this pair in this sentence? 
The next point to this pair is a semicolon between " years " 
and "because." 

14. For what is this point used ? This point and another, 
which does not appear, form a pair and are used for the 
parenthesis to cut off the causal clause, commencing with 
" because," from its base. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 293 

15. Why does not the other semicolon of the pair appear ? 
The other semicolon of the pair does not appear ; because 
the clause, which they cut off does not fall within the bosom 
of its base. The second semicolon of the pair merges in the 
period at the end of the sentence. 

16. What is the next point before the semicolon men- 
tioned ? The next point to this is a colon between " Gaul " 
and " although." 

17. For what is this colon used ? This colon and another, 
which does not appear, constitute a pair of colons .and are 
used to cut off the concessive clause, around which they are 
placed, from its base. 

18. Why does not the second colon of the pair appear ? 
The second colon of the pair does not appear, because the 
clause does not fall within the bosom of its base or principal 
clause. It is merged in the period at the close of the sen- 
tence. 

19. When would this second colon of the pair reappear ? 
This second colon of the pair would reappear, if the conces- 
sive clause was written so as to fall within the bosom of its 
base. 

20. Illustrate. Caesar: although the conclusion of the 
war had been retarded for seven years ; because the inhabi- 
tants, who lived remote from the weakening refinements, 
were very brave and stubborn : finally conquered Gaul. 

21. What is the principal clause here? The principal 
clause here is " Caesar finally conquered Gaul." 

22. What does this great concessive clause introduced by 
" although" limit ? This clause limits the predicate "con- 
quered." 

23. What does this sentence illustrate? This sentence 
Illustrates the use of punctuation for and instead of the 
parenthesis. 

LESSON XLIV. 

The Application of Punctuation Continued. 
1. Copy and punctuate this sentence. " The cavalry; when 



294 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

they were equipped with horses, pistols, swords, rations and 
ammunition ; marched against the enemy." 

2. What is the first . point in this sentence ? The first 
point in this sentence is a semicolon between " cavalry " and 
" when." 

3. For what is this point used? This point and the 
same between "ammunition" and "marched" constitute 
a pair and are used for the parenthesis to cut off the tem- 
poral clause commencing with " when " from its base, the 
principal clause. 

4. What is the next point in this sentence ? The next 
point in this sentence is the comma between " horses " and 
"pistols." 

5. For what is this point used ? This comma and those, 
which follow it, are used for the conjunction to connect the 
members of the compound objective element ; " horses, pis- 
tols, swords, rations and ammunition." 

6. Copy and punctuate this sentence. "The huntsman 
fired his gun too hastily, when he saw the bear, because he 
was frightened." 

7. When the causal clause is cut off from the temporal by 
a comma, why is not the temporal cut off from the principal 
by a semicolon ? Because the subordinate clauses do not 
sustain to each other the relation of modifier and base but 
both co-ordinately modify the principal clause. In this 
relation both must be cut off from the base by the same 
points having the same separating power. 

8. What cuts off the temporal clause from its base? The 
temporal clause is cut off from its base by a pair of commas, 
one coming between " hastily " and " when " and the other 
between " fear " and " because." 

9. What cuts off the causal clause from its base ? The 
causal clause is cut off from the common base by a pair of 
commas, one of which falls between "hastily" and " when" 
and the other of which is merged in the period at the end of 
the sentence. The first of this pair is also the first of the 
other pair and performs a double office. 

10. To what may this use of points be compared ? This 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 295 

use of points may be compared to driving tandem, where the 
horses are not hitched to each other but all hitched to the 
common load to be pulled. 

11. Copy and punctuate this sentence. " "When the gun 
fired, though the bear was clinging to the tree, he fell to 
the ground, because the bullet pierced his heart." 

12. What is the first point in this sentence ? The first 
point in this sentence is a comma, cutting off the temporal 
clause from the principal. 

13. Where is the other member of the pair ? It is under- 
stood, because the clause does not fall within the base. 

14. What is the next point? The next point is a comma, 
cutting off the concessive clause from the principal. 

15. Where is the other comma of the pair ? It is under- 
stood or represented by the comma, which cuts off the tem- 
poral clause, because this clause does not fall in the bosom 
of the principal clause. 

16. What is the next point. The next point is the comma, 
cutting off the causal clause from the principal. 

17. Where is the other comma of the pair ? The other 
comma of the pair is merged in the period or understood, 
because the subordinate clause does not fall in the bosom of 
the base. 

18. When would the other comma of this pair reappear ? 
The commas understood would reappear, if the subordinate 
clauses were placed within the body of the base. 

19. When the temporal and concessive clauses have com- 
mas between them, why must not both be cut off from the 
base by a semicolon? Because these and also the causal 
clause are co-ordinate one with the other and all subor- 
dinate to the common principal. 

20. What does this sentence illustrate? This sentence 
illustrates ; that modifiers are often co-ordinate, when they 
are supposed not to be so. 

21. Copy and punctuate this sentence. 

" Take good heed 
Nor then be modest, where thou shouldst be proud ; 
That almost universal error shun.'*' 



296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

22. For what is the last point here used ? The last point, 
a semicolon between " proud " and " that," is used for the 
conjunction to connect the two members of the compound 
sentence. 

23. For what is the other point used ? The first point, a 
comma between " modest " and " where," and another, which 
merges in the semicolon, constitute a pair and are used to 
cut off the local clause from its base, in the first member of 
the sentence. 

24. When would the second comma reappear ? The sec- 
ond comma would reappear, if the conjunction were used in 
its own place between the members. 

25. Why must the semicolon be used to connect these 
members ? A comma in this place would be understood as 
one of the pair used to cut off the local clause and this 
would leave the absent conjunction without anything to 
represent it. 

LESSON XLV. 

Application of Punctuation Continued. 

1. Copy and punctuate this. 

" That pride, like hooded hawks, in darkness soars, 
From blindness bold and towering to the skies." 

2. For what are the- points used ? Two extended modi- 
fiers are each cut off by a pair of commas from their com- 
mon base " That pride in darkness soars." 

3. Why does not the second comma of the last pair 
appear ? It does not appear, because it merges in the period 
at the close of the sentence. 

4. Copy and punctuate this. 

"A little lord, engaged in play, 
Carelessly threw his ball away ; 
So far beyond the brook it flew, 
(that) His lordship knew not what to do." 

5. For what is the semicolon used after " away " ? This 
point is used for the absent conjunction to connect the 
members of the compound sentence. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OK SYNTAX. 297 

6. For what are the commas- used? The first pair cut 
off the extended adjective element and the last pair cut off 
the consecutive clause in the last member. 

7. Why does not the second comma of the last pair 
appear ? It is lost in the period and understood at the end, 
because the clause does not fall in the bosom of the base. 

8. Copy and punctuate this sentence. " The tomb, having 
been opened in the presence of the Baron of Exchequer ; the 
discovery of the name of King Eobert on an iron plate 
among the rubbish and the cloth of gold, in which the 
bones were shrouded, left no room to doubt, that the long 
wished for grave had at last been discovered : while the 
appearance of the skeleton, in which the breast-bone was 
sawn asunder, afforded a still more interesting proof of its 
really being the remains of that illustrious hero; whose 
heart was committed to his faithful associate in arms and 
thrown by him among the ranks of the army, on a pil- 
grimage to the Holy Land, with the sublime expression, 
* Onward, as thou wast wont, thou fearless Heart.' " 

9. What is the first point in this sentence ? The first 
point is a comma after tomb, which with another comma 
merging in the semicolon after exchequer constitutes a 
pair used for the parenthesis to cut off the extended adjec- 
tive element commencing with " having been." 

10. Why does not the second comma of the pair appear ? 
The second comma does not appear but is merged in the 
semicolon following; because the modifier, which these 
points are used to cut off, does not fall in the bosom of 
the base. 

11. When would this comma reappear? The second 
comma would reappear, if the modifier could be placed 
within the bosom of its base but, since the base consists of 
but one word, this cannot be done. 

12. What is the second point? The second point is a 
semicolon; used, after" exchequer"; for the conjunction to 
connect the first and second members of the compound sub- 
ject. 



298 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

13. What is the next punctuation ? The next punctua- 
tion is a pair of commas after "gold" and "doubt"; used 
to cut off, as a parenthesis, the extended pronominal clause, 
around which they are placed. 

14. What is the next punctuation? The next punctua- 
tion is a colon after " discovered." This colon and another 
understood and merging in the period at the end of the sen- 
tence form a pair and are used for the parenthesis to cut 
off the extended temporal clause commencing with " while." 

15. Why does not the second one of the pair appear ? The 
second colon does not appear, because the temporal clause 
does not fall within the base. 

16. When would this colon reappear ? This second colon 
would reappear, if the clause could be placed in the bosom 
of the base. 

17. Why must this clause be cut off from its base by 
colons ? This large clause must be cut off from its base by 
colons, because commas and semicolons have been exhausted 
to make smaller separations within this clause. 

18. What is the next punctuation ? The next punctua- 
tion is a pair of commas after "skeleton" and "asunder" 
used, for the parenthesis, to cut off the extended relative 
clause, around which they are placed. 

19. Why do they both appear ? These commas both 
appear, because their clause falls within its base " skeleton 
afforded." 

20. What is the next point? The next point is a semi- 
colon after " hero." This point and another, understood and 
merging in the period at the close of the sentence, consti- 
tute a pair used, for the parenthesis, to cut off the extended 
pronominal clause, around which they are placed. 

21. Why does not the second semicolon appear ? 

22. What is the next punctuation ? The next punctua- 
tion is a pair of commas after " army " and " Holy Land " 
used, for the parenthesis, to cut off the extended adverbial 
element, around which they are placed. 

23. Why does the second comma appear ? The second 
comma appears, because the phrase falls within its base. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OK SYNTAX. 299 

24. When would it be understood and merge in the next 
period or other point ? 

25. What is the next punctuation ? The next punctua- 
tion is a comma after " expression "; which, with one under- 
stood, constitutes a pair; used to cut off the extended appo- 
sitive clause or adjective element, around which they are 
placed. 

26. Why is the second comma of the pair understood and 
merging in the period ? This comma merges in the period 
and is understood, because its clause falls without the bosom 
of its base, but would reappear, if the modifier should be 
placed back within its base. 

27. Is there any punctuation within the appositive clause ? 
There is a pair of commas within the appositive clause, cut- 
ting off the modal clause from its base, but as the appositive 
clause is a quotation its points do not affect the punctuation 
of the sentence, in which it is quoted. It is treated as just 
one word. 

28. What is the next punctuation ? The next point is 
the period at the end of the sentence, which is not a syntac- 
tical but a terminal point and has no use in the construc- 
tion of the sentence. 



LESSON XLVI. 

Application of Punctuation Continued. 
Copy and punctuate this sentence : 

"Around them frisking play'd 
All beasts of the earth since wild and of all chase 
In wood or wilderness, forest or den : 
Sporting the lion ramp'd and, in his paw, 
Dandled the kid : bears, tigers, ounces, pards 
Gamboll'd before them: the unwieldy elephant, 
To make them mirth, used all his weight and wreathed 
His lithe proboscis : close the serpent sly, 
Insinuating wove, with Gordian twine, 



300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

His braided train and, of his fatal guile, 
Gave proof unheeded : others on the grass 
Couch'd and now, filPd with pasture, gazing sat 
Or bed- ward ruminating; for the sun, 
Declined, was hasting now, with prone career, 
To the ocean isles and, in the ascending scale 
Of Heaven, the stars, that usher evening, rose." 

— Paradise Lost, Booh IV, 340. 

1. How many members has this compound ? This com- 
pound has six members. 

2. Of. what form are the members? The first five are 
simple sentences and the sixth is complex. 

3. What kind of predicate have the second and fifth ? 
These predicates are compound. 

4. What kind of subject has the third member? This 
subject is compound. 

5. Does this sentence illustrate the rule for writing a 
compound sentence or element ? 

6. How many colons and semicolons has it ? This sen- 
tence has Jive colons and one semicolon. 

7. For what are the five colons used ? The five colons 
are used for conjunctions to connect the members, between 
which they are placed. 

8. For what is the semicolon used ? The semicolon is 
used for the parenthesis, to cut off the causal clause from its 
principal or base. 

9. In the fifth member, why is there not a pair of semi- 
colons as usual ? Because the causal clause does not fall in 
the bosom of the base and so one of them is dropped and 
merged in the period. 

10. Why must these members be connected by colons ? 
The last two members must be connected by colons, 
because commas and semicolons have been used and ex- 
hausted within one of them. Since therefore two of the 
members require a colon and they are all co-ordinate in 
importance, the colon must be used everywhere. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 301 

11. Why is the semicolon used instead of the comma to 
cut off the subordinate clause in the last member ? Because 
commas have been used within the clauses. 

12. For what is the comma used in the first member? 
For the conjunction, to connect the phrases " in wilderness" 
and " in forest." 

13. For what are commas used in the second member ? 
Commas are used in the second member for the parenthesis, 
to cut off the adverbial element " in his paw." 

14. How are they used in the third member? In the 
third member they are used for the conjunction to join 
the members of a compound subject. 

15. How are they used in the fourth member ? In the 
fourth member, they are used for the parenthesis to cut off 
the adverbial element, " to make them mirth." 

16. How are they used in the fifth member ? In the fifth 
member, they are used for the conjunction to connect " sly " 
and "insinuating" and for the parenthesis to cut off the 
adverbial element, " with Gordian twine," and the adjective 
element, "of his fatal guile." 

17. How are they used in the sixth member? In this 
member they are used in the principal clause to cut off 
" filled with pasture " and, in the subordinate, to cut off four 
modifiers ; " declined," " with prone career," " in the ascend- 
ing scale of heaven " and the relative clause " that usher 
evening." 

18. How are the points used in this sentence ? Not to 
mark rhetorical pauses, but to mark the grammatical con- 
nections and separations of the elements. 

LESSON XLVII. 

Okdee of Elements. 

1. Is the meaning of a sentence equally distributed among 
its words or elements ? The meaning of a sentence is not 
equally distributed among its words or elements. Some 
words or elements contain more of the meaning than others. 



302 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. What is said of these words or elements ? These words 
or elements are said to be emphatic. 

3. What is emphasis ? Emphasis is additional stress upon 
one or more words or elements of a sentence just as accent 
is additional stress upon one or more syllables of a word. 

4. How is a word or element made emphatic ? A word 
or element is made emphatic by placing it out of its natural 
order ; just as an elbow, when put out of place, attracts more 
of one's attention than all the other joints of the body. 

5. How many orders of arrangement are there ? There 
are two orders of arrangement, the common or natural and 
the inverted. 

6. Where are the natural and inverted orders used ? The 
natural is used mostly in plain declarative sentences and 
the inverted in imperative, interrogative, exclamatory and 
animated declarative sentences. 

7. How are these last sentences made? The last sen- 
tences are made by inverting the elements of the plain 
declarative sentence. 

8. What is the natural order of the subject ? The sub- 
ject; whether of the first, second or third class; comes 
before the predicate. 

9. Illustrate by examples. 

10. What is the natural order of the predicate? The 
predicate comes after the subject and before the objective 
element. 

11. Write five examples. 

12. What is the natural order of the adjective element ? 
An adjective element of the first class comes before its sub- 
stantive but one of the second or third class follows it. 

13. Illustrate this by examples. Wise men. Men of 
wisdom. Men, who are wise. 

14. What exception to this rule ? The appositive follows 
its noun. 

15. Illustrate. Cicero, the orator, was wise. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 303 

LESSON XLVIII. 

Order of Elements Continued. 

1. When the same substantive has several adjective ele- 
ments, what is the rule of precedence? The element, 
which limits the noun the most closely, comes nearest to it 
but, if they limit equally, the longest comes nearest, if they 
precede, and the shortest nearest, if they follow it. 

2. Illustrate. We must say "An honorable colored man " 
and not "A colored honorable man," because " honorable " 
limits " man " as already limited by " colored." " Honora- 
ble " limits not "man " but " colored man." 

3. Give other illustrations of both parts of the rule. 

4. What is the natural order of an adverbial element? 
The adverbial element generally precedes its adjective, par- 
ticiple or adverb but follows the verb, which it limits, and 
also the verb's object. 

5. Illustrate by examples. 

6. What is the rule of proximity ? An adverbial element 
must not be separated too far from, what it is intended to 
limit. 

7. Illustrate with three sentences. Generally she is 
thought to be pleasant. She is generally thought to be 
pleasant. She is thought to be generally pleasant. 

8. Illustrate again. Not only he drinks but also he 
swears, should be, He not only drinks but he also swears. 

9. What is the natural order of an objective element? 
Whether of the first, second or third class the objective ele- 
ment should follow the predicate. 

10. Illustrate by examples. 

11. Is the order of an element relative or absolute ? Every 
element except the absolute has the relation of limitation or 
government or connection to some other and these relations 
should govern and determine the arrangement and position 
of words in sentences. 

12. Illustrate. The objective element is not said to fol- 
low the subject, the adjective and the adverbial elements 



304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

but the predicate, because it has to this the relation of gov- 
ernment. 

13. What is the natural order of an absolute element? 
An absolute element generally comes at the beginning of 
the sentence and is cut off by a pair of commas, if it falls 
within, and by one comma, if it falls without. 

14. Illustrate. John, come here! Now then, let that 
teach you not to meddle ! There are few, that speak Latin. 

15. What is the inverted order ? The inverted order is 
any deviation from the natural order either for emphasis or 
for the sake of rhyme or rhythm in poetry. 

16. , How can the arrangement of elements be learned? 
Arrangement can be learned by the study and practice of 
sentence-analysis and by observation in reading and writing. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS.— SCHEMES.— DRILLING. 

Here let the principles of analysis be applied vigorously 
to the actual analysis of a sentence according to the follow- 
ing SCHEMES. 

LESSON XLIX. 

Scheme eor Analyzing the Sentence. 

1. A sentence ? Why ? 

2. Use? Why? 

3. Form? Why? 

4. If complex point out its clauses. 

5. Which element of the principal clause does the subor- 
dinate clause limit ? 

6. Base? Why? 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate. 

8. Explain the punctuation. 

LESSON L. 

Scheme for Analyzing the Element. 

1. An element? Why? 

2. Kind? Why? Relations? Why? Rules? 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OK SYNTAX. 305 

3. Form? Why? 

4. If clause, kind ? Why ? 

5. Class? Why? 

6. Base? Why? 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate ? 

8. Explain the punctuation. 

LESSON LI. 

Schemes foe Sentence-Analysis. 

Copy and recite both schemes word for word and con- 
tinue them until they are perfectly committed to memory. 

LESSON LII. 

How to Apply the Schemes in Analyzing the 

Sentence. 

1. What is the first step in analyzing a sentence ? The 
first step is to analyze the sentence as a whole by the first 

SCHEME. 

2. What is the second step? The second step is to take 
up the logical subject by the second scheme. 

3. What is the difference between the grammatical and 
the logical subject or predicate ? The grammatical is the 
simple subject or predicate taken without its modifiers but 
the logical is the simple subject or predicate taken with all 
its modifiers. 

4. What is the third step? The third step is to count 
the number of modifiers the subject has, analyze them and 
each of their modifiers in the order, in which they come, by 
the second scheme. 

5. What is the fourth step? The fourth step is to take 
up the logical predicate according to the second scheme. 

6. What is the fifth step ? The fifth sten is to count the 
number of modifiers the predicate has and analyze them and 
each of their modifiers in the order, in which they come, by 
the second scheme. 



306 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. How are the schemes applied to a compound sentence 
or element ? The schemes must be applied to the members 
of a compound sentence or element separately, just as if 
they were so many simple sentences or elements. 

8. How must the schemes be applied if the members are 
either of them compound ? The schemes must be applied 
to the members of the members separately. 

9. What is the manner of doing this? Commence as 
usual and, when the third item in the scheme "3. Form ? 
Why ? " is reached, stop, go back, take up the first mem- 
ber and, after it is finished, then the other members in 
their proper sequence. 

10. What is the Complement? The complement is the 
adjective or noun used after neuter verbs to complete the 

PREDICATE. 

11. What does the word complement mean ? This word 
from con together and pleo I fill means something used to 
fulfill or complete. 

12. Illustrate. Cicero was an orator. Cicero was wise. 

13. Why are these words " orator " and " wise " comple- 
ments ? These words "orator" and "wise" are comple- 
ments, because they are used after a neuter verb to complete 
the predicate. 

14. How are sentences with a predicate noun or adjective 
and the verb To Be or any other neuter verb analyzed ? 
The verb and complement together are to be analyzed as 
the predicate and then the complement is to be analyzed 
separately as an adjective element limiting the subject. 

15. Must the complement then be analyzed twice? The 
complement must be analyzed twice, first as a part of the 
predicate and second as a separate element. 

16. Illustrate. In the sentence " Washington was honored.", 
" was honored " is the predicate, " honored " is an adjective 
element limiting Washington and " Washington honored " 
is the logical subject of which "Washington " is the base 
and " honored " the modifier. 

17. Illustrate again. In the sentence " Grapes are ripe.", 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 307 

" are ripe " is the predicate, " ripe " is the complement and 
" Grapes ripe " is the logical subject; of which " Grapes " is 
the base and " ripe," an adjective element limiting " grapes." 

18. Give other illustrations. 

19. How is the punctuation to be explained? The punc- 
tuation is to be explained by showing, for what the points 
are used as in the lessons on that subject. 

LESSON LIII. 

Application of the Schemes.— Drilling in Sentence- 
Analysis. 

First, Give and analyze the entire sentence through the 
third item by the first scheme. Then drop the entire sen- 
tence and come back to the first member. 

"a little lord, engaged in play, 
Carelessly threw his ball away ; 
so far beyond the brook it flew, 
(that) His lordship knew not what to do." 

1. A sentence? Why? This is a sentence, because it is 
a group of words or elements so related as to make complete 
sense or to express a complete thought. 

2. Use ? Why ? This is a declarative sentence, because 
it is used to express a thought in the form of an affirmation 
or negation. 

3. Form ? Why ? It is a compound sentence, because it 
consists of a simple and a complex sentence connected by 
the conjunction " and " understood. 

4. What is the first member ? 

"A little lord, engaged in play, 
Carelessly threw his ball away." 

Second, Give and analyze this first member as an entire 
sentence by the first scheme. 

1. A sentence ? Why ? This is a sentence, because it is 



308 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a group of words or elements so related as to express a com- 
plete thought. 

2. Use ? Why ? It is a declarative sentence, because it 
is used to express a thought in the form of an affirmation or 
negation. 

3. Form ? Why ? It is a simple sentence, because it con- 
sists of a single proposition having but one subject and one 
predicate. 

4. If complex, point out its clauses. This sentence is not 
complex, because it does not consist of a principal clause 
limited by subordinate clauses. 

5. Which element of the principal clause do the subordi- 
nate clauses limit? This sentence has no subordinate 
clauses. 

6. Base ? Why ? The base is " lord threw "; because 
these words are the subject and predicate, the essential parts, 
and give name to the sentence. If the base is declarative, 
the sentence must be declarative. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate? The logical 
subject is "A little lord, engaged in play." Its base is 
" lord " and the modifiers of the base are three " a," " little " 
and " engaged in play." The logical predicate is " carelessly 
threw his ball away." The base is " threw " and the modi- 
fiers of the base are three "carelessly," "his ball" and 
"away." Two of these modifiers also have modifiers "in 
play" and "his" making in all ten elements now to be 
analyzed by the second scheme. 

8. Explain the punctuation. This sentence contains a 
pair of commas used as the parenthesis to cut off the 
extended modifier " engaged in play." 

Third, Give and analyze by the second scheme the logical 
subject the first principal element. 

"A little lord, engaged in play." 

1. An element ? Why ? This is an element, because it 
is one of the component parts of a sentence. 

2. Kind? Why? Eelations? Why? Kules? "A little 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OK SYNTAX. 309 

lord, engaged in play," is a subject element ; because it is a 
word or group of words, of which something is affirmed. 
This subject has the relation of government by its predicate 
" threw," because " threw " determines or controls its case, 
according to Eule IX. " The subject is governed by its verb 
and required by it to be in the nominative case." It has 
also the relation of government over the predicate " threw," 
because it controls the number and person of " threw," 
according to Kule X. " The verb is governed by its subject 
and required by it to be in the same number and person." 
The base "lord" has other relations to its modifiers but 
these will be explained in analyzing these modifiers as sepa- 
rate elements. 

3. Form and why? In form this element is complex, 
because it consists of a single subject base, some part of 
which is limited by one or more modifiers. 

4. If clause, kind ? Why ? This subject is not a clause. 

5. Class? Why? This subject element is of the first 
class, because its base " lord " consists of a single word. 

6. Base ? Why ? " lobd " is the base of this element, 
because this word gives name to the element. The entire 
element is called the subject, because its chief word is a 
subject. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate ? It has no prin- 
cipal elements, not being a clause. Its subordinate elements 
are three, " a," " little " and " engaged in play." 

8. Explain the punctuation. It contains a pair of com- 
mas cutting off like the parenthesis the extended modifier 
" engaged in play." 

Fourth, Give and analyze by the second scheme the first 
modifier 

"A." 

1. An element ? Why ? " A " is an element, because it 
is one of the distinct, component parts of a sentence. 

2. Kind? Why? Relations? Why? Rules? "A "is 
an adjective element, because it is a word or group of words 
used to limit the meaning of a noun. This element " A " 



310 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

has the relation of limitation over the subject base " lord," 
because it reduces that word from a general to a particular 
meaning, according to Kule IV. " An adjective or participle 
limits its noun or pronoun from a general to a particular or 
special meaning." 

3. Form ? Why ? It is a simple adjective element, be- 
cause it consists of a single adjective base without any modi- 
fiers. 

4. If clause, kind ? Why ? It is not a clause having 
neither subject nor predicate. 

5. Class ? Why ? It is of the first class, because its base 
consists of a single word. 

6. Base? Why? "A" is the base; because it is the 
word, which gives name to the element, and because there 
are no modifiers. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate ? It has no ele- 
ments either principal or subordinate. The base "A" 
stands alone. 

8. Explain the punctuation. 

Fifth, Give and analyze by the second scheme in the 
same manner the second modifier 

"little." 

LESSON LIV. 

Application of the Schemes. — Drilling in Sentence- 
Analysis. 

First, Give and analyze by the second scheme the third 
modifier of the subject, 

"Engaged in play." 

1. An element? Why? "Engaged in play" is an ele- 
ment, because it is one of the distinct component parts of a 
sentence. 

2. Kind? Why? Eelations ? Why? Eules? "En- 
gaged in play " is an adjective element, because it is a word 
or group of words used to limit the meaning of a noun. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OE SYNTAX. 311 

This element has one relation, that of limitation over the 
subject base " lobd "; because it reduces that word from a 
general to a particular meaning, according to Kule IV. 
" An adjective or participle limits its noun or pronoun from 
a general to a special or particular meaning." 

3. Form ? Why ? It is a complex adjective element; be- 
cause it consists of a single adjective base, some part of 
which is limited by one or more modifiers. 

4. If clause, kind? Why? It is not a clause having 
neither subject nor predicate. 

5. Class ? Why ? It is of the first class, because its base 
consists of a single word. 

6. Base ? Why ? " Engaged " is the base, because it is 
the chief word and because from it the element is named. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate ? It has no prin- 
cipal elements, not being a clause. It has one modifier, " in 
play." 

8. Explain the punctuation. This element contains no 
points. 

Second, G-ive and analyze by the second scheme this 
modifier, 

" in play." 

1. An element? Why? "In play" is an element, be- 
cause it is one of the distinct factors of a sentence. 

2. Kind? Why? Eelations? Why? Eules? "In 
play " is an adverbial element; because it is a word or group 
of words used to limit the meaning of a verb, adjective, par- 
ticiple or adverb. This element has one relation, that of 
limitation over the participle " engaged "; because it reduces 
this word or adjective base from a general to a particular 
meaning, according to Eule V. "An adverb limits its verb, 
adjective, participle or adverb from a general to a particular 
meaning." 

3. Eorm ? Why ? It is a simple adverbial element, be- 
cause it consists of a single adverbial base unlimited. 

4. If clause, kind and why ? It is not a clause having 
neither subject nor predicate. 



312 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Class? Why? It is of the second class, because its 
base consists of a phrase. 

6. Base ? Why ? The base of this element is " in play." 
The base of a phrase cannot be anything less than the prep- 
osition and its object or the infinitive and its sign ; because, 
without these it would not be a phrase at all and the base 
can be nothing more than these, because the phrase is com- 
plete without more. These words are the base, because they 
and they only are essential to the existence of the phrase. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate? This element 
has no principal elements, not being a clause, and, being a 
simple element, it has no modifiers. 

8. Explain the punctuation. "In play" contains no 
points. 

Third, Give and analyze by the second scheme the predi- 
cate of the sentence 

" Carelessly threw his ball away." 

1. An element? Why? "Carelessly threw his ball 
away " is an element, because it is one of the distinct com- 
ponent parts of a sentence. 

2. Kind? Why? Relations? Why? Rules? "Carelessly 
threw his ball away" is a predicate element; because it is a 
group of words, which are affirmed of the subject. This ele- 
ment has the relation of government by the subject " lord "; 
because "lord" controls or determines its number and per- 
son, according to Rule X. " A verb is governed by its subject 
and required by it to be in the same number and person." 
It has also the relation of government over the subject ; be- 
cause it controls or determines the case of the subject 
" lord," according to Rule IX. " The subject is governed 
by its verb and required by it to be in the nominative case." 
The base " threw " has several relations to its modifiers ; 
which will be explained, when the modifiers are analyzed. 

3. Form ? Why ? This is a complex predicate ; because 
it consists of a predicate base, some element of which is lim- 
ited by one or more modifiers. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 313 

4. If a clause, kind ? Why ? It is not a clause ; because 
it does not contain, what is essential to a clause, a subject 
and predicate. 

5. Class ? Why ? It is of the first class, because its base 
consists of a single word. 

6. Base ? Why ? The base is " threw," because this is 
the chief word and gives name to the element. The ele- 
ment takes its name from its principal word. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate ? It has no prin- 
cipal elements, not being a clause. Its modifiers are three, 
" carelessly," "his ball" and "away." 

8. Explain the punctuation. This element contains no 
points. 

Fourth, Give and analyze by the second scheme the first 

element, 

" Carelessly." 

Fifth, Give and analyze by the second scheme the second 
element, 

" his ball." 

1. An element ? Why ? " His ball " is an element, be- , 
cause it is one of the distinct factors or parts of a sentence. 

2. Kind? Why? Relations? Why? Eules? "His 
ball " is an objective element ; because it is a word or a group 
of words used as the object of a verb, a participle or of a 
preposition. This element has one relation, that of govern- 
ment by the predicate or verb " threw "; because this verb 
controls or determines one of its properties, case, according 
to Rule XV. " The object of a verb, a participle or a prepo- 
sition is governed by it and required by it to be in the 
objective case." 

The objective element ought also to be analyzed as having 
the relation of limitation over its predicate, according to the 
rule for adverbs. 

3. Form? Why? It is a complex objective element; be- 
cause it consists of a single objective base, some part of 
which is limited by one or more modifiers. 



314 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. If clause, kind ? Why ? " His ball " is not a clause 
not having subject and predicate. 

5. Class ? Why ? It is of the first class, because its base 
consists of a single word. 

6. Base ? Why ? Its base is " ball," because this is the 
chief word and gives name to the element. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate ? It has no prin- 
cipal elements, as it is not a clause. It has one modifier 
" his." 

8. Explain the punctuation. This element contains no 
points. 

Sixth, Give and analyze by the second scheme its only 
modifier, 

" his." 

1. An element ? Why ? " His " is an element, because 
it is one of the distinct component parts of a sentence. 

2. Kind? Why? Eelations? Why? Eules? "His" 
is an adjective element, because it is a word or a group of 
words used to limit the meaning of a noun. This element 
has the relation of limitation over the noun "ball"; because 
it reduces " ball " from a general to a particular meaning, 
according to Rule IV. " An adjective or participle limits its 
noun or pronoun from a general to a particular or special 
meaning." It has also the relation of government by the 
noun " ball "; because " ball " controls or determines one of 
its properties, case, according to Rule VII. " If a limiting 
noun or pronoun precedes its base, it is governed by the 
base, required by it to be in the possessive case and called 
the possessive." 

3. Form? .Why? This is a simple adjective element, 
because it consists of a single adjective base unlimited. 

4. If clause, kind ? Why? It is not a clause not having 
subject and predicate. 

5. Class ? Why ? It is of the first class, because its base 
consists of a single word. 

6. Base ? Why ? Its base is " his," because this word 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 315 

gives name to the element and because there is no other 
word to be the base. 

7. Elements, principal or subordinate ? It has neither, 
the base " his " stands alone. 

8. Explain the punctuation. This element contains no 
points. 

Seventh, Now give and analyze by the second scheme the 
third element or modifier, 

" away." 

LESSON LV. 

Application of the Schemes. — Drilling in Sentence- 
Analysis. 

First, G-ive and analyze by the second scheme the second 
member of this compound sentence. 

So far beyond the brook it flew, 
(that) His lordship knew not what to do." 

1. A sentence ? Why ? This is a sentence, because it is 
a group of words or elements so related as to make complete 
sense. 

2. Use ? Why ? It is a declarative sentence, because it 
is used to express a thought in the form of an affirmation or 
negation. 

3. Eorm ? Why ? It is a complex sentence ; because it 
consists of a principal clause, some element of which is 
limited by one or more subordinate clauses. 

4. If complex, point out its clauses. The principal 
clause is "So far beyond the brook it flew," and the only 
subordinate clause is " (thai) His lordship knew not what 
to do." 

5. Which element of the principal clause does the subor- 
dinate clause limit ? The subordinate clause " (that) His 
lordship knew not what to do " limits the predicate " flew," 
because it reduces this word from a general to a particular 
meaning. 



316 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. Base ? Why ? The base is " it flew "; because these 
words are the subject and the predicate, the essential parts 
of the sentence and, being declarative themselves, they give 
this name to the sentence. The base of the sentence could 
not be less than " it flew "; because with less than these, 
the subject and predicate, there could be no sentence. The 
base could not be more than these, because nothing more is 
essential to the existence of a sentence. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate? "It" is the 
subject and it has no modifiers. " So far beyond the brook 
flew (that) His lordship knew not what to do" is the predi- 
cate and its modifiers are four, " that," " So far," " beyond 
the brook " and " (that) His lordship knew not what to do." 

8. Explain the punctuation. The three points connected 
with this sentence are the semicolon used as a conjunction 
to connect this with the preceding sentence or member, the 
period at the close and the pair of commas cutting off the 
final clause from the principal, the first of which is ex- 
pressed and the second understood and merged in the period. 

Second, Give and analyze by the second scheme the sub- 
ject, 

"it." 

Third, Give and analyze by the same scheme the predi- 
cate. 

" So far beyond the brook flew 

(that) His lordship knew not what to do." 

1. An element ? Why ? This is an element, because it 
is one of the component factors or parts of a sentence. 

2. Kind? Why? Relations? Why? Kules?"Sofar 
beyond the brook flew (that) His lordship knew not what to 
do" is a predicate element; because it is a word or group of 
words, which are affirmed of the subject. All the words of 
the sentence except "it" belong to the predicate. This 
predicate has the relation of government by its subject "it"; 
because this subject controls or determines two of its prop- 
erties, number and person, according to Rule X. " A verb 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 317 

is governed by its subject and required by it to be in the 
same number and person." 

This predicate has also the relation of government over 
the subject ; because it controls or determines the case of 
the subject, according to Kule IX " The subject is gov- 
erned by its verb and required by it to be in the nominative 
case." The base of the predicate has several relations to its 
modifiers to be explained, when they are analyzed. 

3. Form? Why? This is a complex predicate element; 
because it consists of a single predicate base, some part of 
which is limited by one or more modifiers. 

4. If a clause, kind ? Why ? This element contains a 
clause but is not itself a clause. 

5. Class ? Why ? This predicate is of the first class, 
because its base " flew " consists of a single word. 

6. Base ? Why ? The base of this complex predicate is 
" flew"; because this is the chief word and, being a predi- 
cate itself, gives the name of predicate to the entire element. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate? This predicate 
as such has no principal elements. Its subordinate modi- 
fiers are four, " that " (understood'), " So far," " beyond the 
brook " and "( that) His lordship knew not what to do." 

8. Explain the punctuation. All the points this element 
contains were explained in analyzing the entire sentence in 
a former lesson. 

Fourth, Give and analyze like the element " carelessly " 
the first element or modifier 

" So far." 

Fifth, Give and analyze in the same manner the only 
modifier of this last element 

" So." 

Sixth, Give and analyze by the same scheme the second 
modifier 

" beyond the brook." 



318 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. An element? Why? "Beyond the brook" is an ele- 
ment, because it is one of the distinct parts or factors of a 
sentence. 

2. Kind? Why? Relations? Why? Rules? "Be- 
yond the brook" is an adverbial element; because it is a 
word or group of words used to limit the meaning of a verb, 
adjective, participle or adverb. This element has the rela- 
tion of limitation over the predicate or verb " flew "; because 
it reduces this word from a general to a special or particular 
meaning, according to Rule V " An adverb limits its verb, 
adjective, participle or adverb from a general to a particular 
or a special meaning." 

3. Form ? Why ? This is a complex adverbial element, 
because it consists of a simple adverbial base, some part of 
which is limited by one or more modifiers. 

4. If clause, kind ? Why ? It is not a clause as it has 
no subject and predicate. 

5. Class ? Why ? This element is of the second class, 
because its base, " beyond brook," consists of a phrase. 

6. Base ? Why ? The base of this element is " beyond 
BROOK," because nothing more nor less than the preposition 
and its object is essential to the existence of a phrase or 
element of the second class. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate ? Principal ele- 
ments it has none. Its subordinate elements are one, "the." 

8. Explain the punctuation. This element contains no 
punctuation. 

Seventh, Give and analyze, like the element " little " in a 
former lesson, the only modifier 

" the." 

1. An element ? Why ? " The " is an element, because it is 
one of the component parts of a sentence. 

2. Kind? Why.? Relations? Why? Rules? "The" 
is an adjective element, because it is a word or group of 
words used to limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 
This element has the relation of limitation over the word 



SENTENCE- ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 319 

"brook," which is only a part of the phrase "beyond 
brook"; because it limits the noun brook from a general to 
a special or particular meaning, according to Eule IV " An 
adjective or participle limits its noun or pronoun down 
from a general to a particular or special meaning." 

3. Form? Why? It is a simple adjective element, 
because it consists of a single adjective base unlimited by 
any modifiers. 

4. If clause, kind ? Why ? This element is not a clause 
since it has no subject and predicate. 

5. Class? Why? This element is of the first class, 
because its base is a single word. 

6. Base ? Why ? Its base is " the," because this word 
gives name to the element and because there are no other 
words to be the base. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate? It has none 
of either kind. 

8. Explain the punctuation. This element contains no 
punctuation. 

LESSON LVI. 

Application of the Schemes. — Drilling in Sentence- 
Analysis. 

First, Give and analyze by the second scheme the third 
element of this predicate 

" (that) His lordship knew not what to do." 

1. An element ? Why ? This is an element, because it 
is one of the distinct parts of a sentence. 

2. Kind? Why? Kelations? Why? Eules? "(that) 
Lordship knew not what to do" is an adverbial element; 
because it is a word or group of words used to limit the 
meaning of a verb, adjective, participle or adverb. This 
element has the relation of limitation over the predicate or 
verb " flew "; because it reduces this word or base from a 
general to a special meaning, according to Rule V "An 
adverb limits its verb, adjective, participle or adverb down 
from a general to a special or particular meaning." 



320 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Form ? Why ? This element is of the complex form ; 
because it consists of a single adverbial base, some element 
of which is limited by one or more modifiers. 

4. If clause, kind? Why? This element is a consecu- 
tive clause; because it denotes a consequence and is intro- 
duced by a consecutive connective, "that" understood. 

5. Class? Why? This element is of the third class, 
because its base consists of a clause. 

6. Base? Why? The base of this element is "(that) 
lordship knew ": because these words ; the subject, the pre- 
dicate and the connective ; are the essential parts of a clause 
and because these, the chief words, give name and character 
to the clause. The base could not be less than these : 
because; without the subject, predicate and connective; the 
element would not be a clause. The base could not be more 
than these, because nothing more is necessary to the exist- 
ence of a complete clause. Of a principal clause, the sub- 
ject and predicate are the essential parts but, of a subordi- 
nate clause, the essential parts are the subject, the predicate 
and the connective : because a subordinate clause will not 
make sense, unless connected with the principal clause. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate? Its principal 
elements are " His lordship," the subject and " (that) knew 
not what to do," the predicate. The subject has one modi- 
fier "his" and the predicate has three; "that" (under- 
stood), " not " and " what to do." 

8. Explain the punctuation. This element has no points 
except the period at the end already explained. 

Second, Here give and analyze this subject 

" His lordship." 

Third, Here give and analyze its only modifier 

"His." 

Fourth, Here give and analyze this predicate 

" (that) knew not what to do." 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 321 

1. An element? Why ? " ( That) knew not what to do " 
is an element, because it is one of the distinct parts or fac- 
tors of a sentence. 

2. Kind? Why? Relations? Why? Rules? "(That) 
knew not what to do " is a predicate element ; because it is 
a word or group of words, which are affirmed of the subject. 
This element as such has two relations. Its first relation is 
that of government by the subject "lordship"; because 
"lordship" controls or determines two of its properties, 
number and person, according to Rule X " A verb is gov- 
erned by its subject and required by it to be in the same 
number and person." The second relation is that of gov- 
ernment over the subject ; because the predicate controls or 
determines one of the subject's properties namely case, 
according to Rule IX "The subject is governed by its 
verb and required by it to be in the nominative case." 

3. Form ? Why ? This element is complex in form ; be- 
cause it consists of a predicate base, some part or element of 
which is limited by one or more modifiers. 

4. If a clause, kind ? Why ? It is not a clause, as it has 
no subject and predicate. 

5. Class? Why? This element is of the y^ class, be- 
cause its base " knew " consists of a single word. 

6. Base ? Why ? The base of this element is " knew," 
because this verb, being the chief word, gives name to the 
element. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate ? This element 
has no principal elements not being a clause. The modifiers 
of the base " knew" are three " that," " not " and " what 
to do." 

8. Explain the punctuation. This element contains no 
points. 

Fifth, Here analyze the first modifier as an adverbial ele- 
ment limiting the meaning of the predicates " flew " and 
" knew," which it joins as a connective. 

"that." 



322 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Sixth, Also give and analyze the second modifier 

" not." 
Seventh, Here give and analyze the third modifier 
"what to do." 

1. An element ? Why ? " What to do " is an element, 
because it is one of the distinct factors of a sentence. 

2. Kind? Why? Eelations ? Why? Eules ? "What 
to do" is an objective element; because it is a word or 
group of words used as the object of a verb, a participle or a 
preposition. This element has one relation; that of gov- 
ernment by the predicate or verb "knew," according to Eule 
VIII "An infinitive, not used as a noun, is governed by 
the word, whose meaning the infinitive phrase limits, and is 
required by it to be in the infinitive mood." This, as all 
objective elements, has the relation of limitation over the 
verb, which governs or controls its mood, according to the 
rule for adverbs. 

3. Form ? Why ? This is a complex objective element, 
because it consists of a single objective base, some part or 
element of which is limited by one or more modifiers. 

4. If a clause, kind? Why? It is not a clause, not 
having subject and predicate. 

5. Class? Why? This element is of the second class, 
because its base consists of a phrase, in this case an infini- 
tive phrase. 

6. Base ? Why ? The base of this element is " to do "; 
because these are the chief words, essential to the existence 
of a phrase and giving name to the element. The base 
could be nothing less nor more than " to do," because the 
phrase could exist with nothing less and nothing more is 
required to constitute a complete phrase. Because this base 
is an object, the entire element is said to be an objective ele- 
ment. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate ? This element 
has.no principal elements not being a clause. Its subordi- 
nate modifiers are one, " what." 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 323 

8. Explain the punctuation. This element contains no 
points. 

Eighth, Here give and analyze by the proper scheme this 

only modifier 

"what." 

1. An element? Why? "What" is an element, because it 
is one of the separate factors or component parts of a sen- 
tence. 

2. Kind? Why? delations? Why? Kules? "What "is 
an objective element ; because it is a word or group of words 
used as the object of a verb, participle or a preposition. This 
element has the relation of government by the infinitive 
base " to do "; because " to do " controls or determines its 
case, according to Rule XV " The object of a verb, participle 
or preposition is governed by it and required by it to be in 
the objective case." 

3. Form? Why? This is a simple objective element, 
because it consists of a single objective base without any 
modifiers. 

4. If clause, kind ? Why ? This element is not a clause 
not having subject and predicate. 

5. Class ? Why ? This element is of the first class, be- 
cause its base consists of a single word. 

6. Base? Why? The base is "what," because this 
word gives name to the element and because there is no 
other word to be the base. 

7. Elements, principal and subordinate ? Principal and 
subordinate elements it has none. The base "what" 
stands alone. 

8. Explain the punctuation of the entire sentence. 

LESSON LVII. 

Write and analyze again the first member, 

" A little lord, engaged in play, 
Carelessly threw his ball away." 



324 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON LVIII. 

Write again and analyze the second member, 

" So far beyond the brook it flew, 
(that) His lordship knew not what to do." 

LESSON LIX. 

Write and analyze in the same manner every day for 
several months, if necessary, this same compound sentence, 

"A little lord, engaged in play, 
Carelessly threw his ball away ; 
So far beyond the brook it flew, 
{that) His lordship knew not what to do." 

LESSON LX. 

The Syntax Tree. 

1. To what may a sentence be compared ? A sentence 
may be fitly compared to a tree. 

2. What is the trunk of the tree ? The lower part of the 
trunk may represent the subject and the upper part the 
predicate. 

3. What represents the separation of the subject and the 
predicate ? The subject and predicate are separated by a 
graceful knot on one side of the trunk, limb, branch or twig, 
which supports the sentence or clause. 

4. What do the lower limbs represent ? The lower limbs 
represent the modifiers of the subject and their branches 
represent the modifiers of these modifiers and so on. 

5. What do the upper limbs represent ? The upper limbs 
represent the modifiers of the predicate and their branches 
the modifiers of their modifiers and so on. 

6. How are compound sentences represented ? Com- 
pound sentences may be represented by two trees or by three 
or more according to the number of members. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 325 

7. How are compound members represented ? The mem- 
bers of any member are represented by a double tree. 

8. What are the three types ? The three types are ; first 
the simple sentence with simple, complex or compound sub- 
ject, predicate, adjective, adverbial or objective elements; 
second the compound sentence with simple, complex or 
compound members ; third the complex sentence. The 
trees will be so placed as to represent these three types in 
their order. 

9. How are the members of a compound subject to be rep- 
resented ? The members of a compound subject are to be 
represented by rugged knots on the trunk. 

10. How are compound predicates to be represented ? 
Compound predicates are to be represented by double tops. 

11. How are compound elements to be represented ? 
Compound elements are to be represented by double limbs 
or double branches. 

12. Why is not a lone and limbless tree beautiful ? A lone 
and limbless tree is not beautiful but grand, because its 
unity preponderates over its variety. 

13. Why is not a bunch of brambles beautiful ? A bunch 
of brambles is not beautiful, because its variety preponder- 
ates over its unity. 

14. When is a tree beautiful ? A tree is beautiful, when 
its unity and variety are combined in just the right propor- 
tion to draw out the pleasurable exercise of our minds. 

15. Why is the tree naturally adapted to have a sentence 
placed on it to illustrate its analysis. The tree and the sen- 
tence, the one subjective and the other objective, are very 
much alike in the relations of their parts and in the sym- 
metry of their proportions. 

16. How must the following nine lessons be studied? 
Let the class first draw the trees on blackboard or paper 
and then place the corresponding sentences on them in such 
a manner as to illustrate and rivet the doctrines of sen- 
tence-analysis. 



326 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



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LESSON LXI. 

The Syntax Tree Continued. 
Philosophers investigate. 




LESSON LXII. 

The Syntax Tree Continued. 
Buffaloes, cattle and camels ruminate. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OK SYNTAX. 



327 




LESSON LXIII. 

The Syntax Tree Continued. 
The great orator reasons clearly and writes elegantly. 




LESSON LXIV. 

The Syntax Tree Continued. 

(Ye) majors, captains and lieutenants; report to head- 
quarters. 



328 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




LESSON LXV. 

The Syntax Tree Continued. 

Susan, Karl, Rachel, Joseph and Samuel; red, purple, 
yellow and green leaves gracefully, charmingly, cheerfully 
and sweetly adorn trees, bushes, vines and shrubs. 



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s?« navy j ' * ^^° ' l 

LESSON LXVI. 

The Syntax Tree Continued. 
Chemists experiment and merchants speculate. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 



329 




LESSON LXVII. 

The Syntax Tree Continued 

Thomas is ignorant but John writes elegantly and James 
reads fluently. 




LESSON LXVIII. 

The Syntax Tree Continued. 

Thomas is rich and Philip is poor but Philip is learned 
and Thomas is ignorant. 



330 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




LESSON LXIX. 

The Syntax Tree Continued. 
Farmers, when autumn comes, sow, that they may reap. 




LESSON LXX. 

The Syntax Tree Continued. 

By chance there passed a farmer's boy, whistling a tune 
in childish joy. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 



331 




LESSON LXXI. 

The Syntax Tree Continued. 

"A little lord, engaged in play, 
Carelessly threw his ball away ; 
So far beyond the brook it flew, 
(that) His lordship knew not what to do." 



332 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



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M 

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02 



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SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 333 



LESSON LXXIII. 

The Syntax Tree Continued. — (See opposite page.) 

About them frisking play'd 
All beasts of the earth since wild and of all chase 
In wood or wilderness, forest or den : 
Sporting the lion ramp'd and, in his paw, 
Dandled the kid : bears, tigers, ounces, pards 
Gl-amboird before them : the unwieldy elephant, 
To make them mirth, used all his might and wreathed 
His lithe proboscis: close the serpent sly, 
Insinuating wove, with Gordian twine, 
His braided train and, of his fatal guile, 
Gave proof unheeded : others on the grass 
Couch'd and now, filPd with pasture, gazing sat 
Or bed- ward ruminating; for the sun, 
Declined, was hasting now, with prone career, 
To the ocean isles and, in the ascending scale 
Of Heaven, the stars, that usher evening, rose." 

Paradise Lost, Book IV, 340. 




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LESSON LXXIV. 
The Syntax Tree CoxriXTTm>.— (See .opposite page.) 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OK SYNTAX. 335 



LESSON LXXV. 

The Syntax Tree Continued.— (See opposite page.) 

The Grave of Eobert Bruce. 

The tomb, having been opened in the presence of the 
Baron of Exchequer ; the discovery of the name of King 
Eobert on an iron plate among the rubbish and the cloth of 
gold, in which the bones were shrouded, left no room to 
doubt that the long wished for grave had at last been dis- 
covered : while the appearance of the skeleton, in which the 
breast bone was sawn asunder, afforded a still more inter- 
esting proof of its really being the remains of that illus- 
trious hero; whose heart was committed to his faithful 
associate in arms and thrown by him, on a pilgrimage to the 
Holy Land, among the ranks of the army, with the sublime 
expression, "Onward, as thou wast wont, thou fearless 
Heart." 



336 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




LESSON LXXVI. 



The Syntax Tree Continued. 

" You, little chap, pick up my ball;" 
His saucy lordship loud did call ; 
(for) He thought it useless to be polite 

To one, whose clothes were in such a plight. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 337 

SELECTIONS FOE SENTENCE-ANALYSIS. 

Now go on and analyze every sentence of the following 
selections referring to and reviewing the first stanza as given 
for a model in the text as often as necessary. Divide the 
selections into suitable lessons. 

FIRST SELECTION. 

The Little Lord and the Farmer. 

A little lord, engaged in play, 
Carelessly threw his ball away ; 
So far beyond the brook it flew, 
His lordship knew not what to do. 

By chance there passed a farmer's boy, 
Whistling a tune in childish joy ; 
His frock was patched, his hat was old 
But his manly heart was very bold. 

" You, little chap, pick up my ball ;" 
His saucy lordship loud did call ; 
He thought it useless to be polite 
To one, whose clothes were in such a plight. 

" Do it yourself for want of me," 
Replied the boy quite manfully ; 
Then quietly he passed along, 
Whistling aloud his favorite song. 

His little lordship furious grew, 
For he was proud and hasty too ; 
"I'll break your bones," he rudely cries, 
While fire (did) flash from both his eyes. 

Now, heedless quite which way he took, 
He tumbled plump into the brook 
And, as he fell, he lost his bat 
And next he dropped his beaver hat. 



338 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Come help me out," enraged he cried 
But the sturdy farmer thus replied; 

" Alter your tone my little man 
And then I'll help you all, I can. 

There are few things ; I would not dare 
For gentlemen, who speak me fair, 
But, for rude words, I do not choose 
To wet my feet and soil my shoes." 

" Please help me out," his lordship said, 
" I'm sorry I was so ill-bred ;" 
" 'Tis all forgot," replied the boy 
And gave his hand in honest joy. 

The offered hand his lordship took 
And soon came safely from the brook ; 
His looks were downcast and aside, 
For he felt ashamed of his silly pride. 

The farmer brought his ball and bat 
And wiped the wet from his dripping hat 
And mildly said, as he went away, 
" Kemember the lesson you've learned to-day. 

Be kind to all, you chance to meet 
In field or lane or crowded street ; 
Anger and pride are both unwise, 
Vinegar never catches flies." 

SECOND SELECTION. 

Looking to Jesus. 

! eyes, that are weary, and hearts, that are sore ; 
Look off unto Jesus and sorrow no more : 
The light of his countenance shineth so bright ; 
That, here as in heaven, there need be no night. 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS OR SYNTAX. 339 

When looking to Jesus, I go not astray ; 
My eyes are upon him, he shows me the way : 
The path may seem dark, as he leads me along, 
But, following Jesus, I cannot go wrong. 

Still looking to Jesus, oh ! may I be found, 
When Jordan's dark waters encompass me round ; 
They'll bear me away in his presence to be 
And see Him still nearer, whom always I see. 

Then, then I shall know the full beauty and grace 
Of Jesus my Lord, when I stand face to face ; 
Shall know, how his love went before me each day 
And wonder, that ever my eyes turned away. 

THIRD SELECTION. 
Redemption, 
He asked but all the heavenly choir stood mute 
And silence was in heaven. On man's behalf 
Patron or intercessor none appear'd : 
Much less; that durst, upon his own head, draw 
The deadly forfeiture and ransom set. 
And now, without redemption, all mankind 
Must have been lost, adjudged to death and Hell 
By doom severe ; had not the Son of God, 
In whom the fulness dwells of love divine, 
His dearest mediation thus renew'd. 

" Father, thy word is pass'd, man shall find grace. 
And shall grace not find means ; that finds her way, 
The speediest of thy winged messengers, 
To visit all thy creatures and to all 
Comes unprevented, unimplored, unsought ? 
Happy for man, so coming ; he her aid 
Can never seek, once dead in sins and lost. 
Atonement for himself or offering meet, 
Indebted and undone, hath none to bring. 
Behold me then, me for him ; life for life 
I offer : on me let thine anger fall : 
Account me man ; I, for his sake, will leave 



340 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Thy bosom and this glory next to thee, 

Freely put off, and for him lastly die 

Well pleased. On me let Death wreak all his rage : 

Under his gloomy power I shall not long 

Lie vanquished ; thou hast given me to possess 

Life in myself forever, by thee I live. 

Though now to Death I yield and am his due ; 

All, that of me can die : yet, that debt paid, 

Thou wilt not leave me in the loathsome grave 

His prey nor suffer my unspotted soul 

For ever, with corruption, there to dwell 

But I shall rise victorious and subdue 

My vanquisher, spoiled of his vaunted spoil. 

Death his death's wound shall then receive and stoop 

Inglorious, of his mortal sting disarm'd. 

I, through the ample air in triumph high, 

Shall lead Hell captive, maugre Hell, and show 

The powers of darkness bound. Thou, at the sight 

Pleased, out of Heaven shalt look down and smile ; 

While, by thee raised, I ruin all my foes 

Death last and with his carcass glut the grave. 

Then, with the multitude of my redeem'd, 

Shall enter Heaven, long absent, and return, 

Father, to see thy face, wherein no cloud 

Of anger shall remain but peace assured 

And reconcilement : wrath shall be no more 

Thenceforth but in thy presence joy entire." 

— Paradise Lost, Bh. Ill, 217. 

FOURTH SELECTION. 

Postquam id animum advertit, copias suas Caesar proxi- 
mum collem subducit equitatumque, qui sustinaret hostium 
impitum, misit. Ipse iterum in colle medio triplicem aciem 
instruxit legionum quatuor veteranarum ita; ut supra se in 
summo jugo duas legiones, quas in Grallia citeriore proxime 
conscripserat, et omnia auxilia collocaret ac totam montem 
hominibus compleri et interea sarcinas in unum locum con- 
fessi et eum ab his, qui in superiore acie constiterant, muniri 
jussit. — Caesar's Commentaries, Booh I, Chapter 14. 



PART FOURTH. 

SCANNING OR PROSODY 



FIRST DIVISION. 
LESSON I. 

Quantity and Accent. 

1. What is Prosody ? Prosody is that part of Grammar : 
which treats of four things ; first of Quantity and Accent, 
second of Rhythm, third of Rhyme and fourth of Transpo- 
sition. 

2. What is Quantity ? Quantity is the relative, not the 
absolute, time to be taken in pronouncing a syllable. 

3. In Quantity how many kinds of syllables are there ? 
There are two kinds of syllables in Quantity the long and 
the short, 

4. What is the difference between them in pronunciation ? 
It is considered, that a long syllable requires twice as much 
time as a short one in pronunciation. 

5. How do Latin and Greek differ from English in Quan- 
tity ? Besides the long and the short syllable, the Latin and 
Greek have a common syllable, which may be considered 
either long or short according to the necessity of the foot. 
In this these languages differ from the English. 

6. What is another difference ? Quantity is more regular, 
uniform and better defined in Latin and Greek than in Eng- 
lish. 

7. What in English corresponds to Quantity in Latin and 
Greek ? Accent in English, though not the same, corres- 
ponds to Quantity in Latin and Greek. 

8. What in its general sense is Poetry ? In its general 
sense, as science is any work intended to be useful and to 
instruct the mind, so Poetry is any work intended or calcu- 
lated to gratify the imagination and taste. 



342 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. What in its restricted sense is Poetry ? In its restricted 
sense, as Prose is discourse written in language as ordina- 
rily used, so Poetry is discourse written in Terses or met- 
rical lines. 

10. How is Latin and Greek verse constructed ? Latin 
and Greek verse is constructed by grouping long and short 
syllables into feet. 

11. How is English verse constructed ? English verse is 
constructed by grouping accented and unaccented syllables 
into feet. 

12. Upon what is Prosody based ? Prosody in Latin and 
Greek is based upon Quantity but in English it is based 
Upon Accent. 

13. What is the etymology of Accent ? This word comes 
from ad to or for and cantus a song and hence originally 
meant a preparation of language to be sung by giving it 
metre. 

14. What is the etymology of Prosody ? Prosody comes 
from npos to or for and c% an ode or a song and hence these 
two words Accent and Prosody, one Latin and the other 
Greek, mean the same. 

15. What do we now mean by Accent ? Accent is addi- 
tional stress upon one or two of the syllables of a word. 

16. What connection has our use of the word with its 
original meaning ? It is only by Accent, that we can pre- 
pare English for song or to be sung. 

17. How many kinds of Accent are there? There are 
two kinds of Accent, the primary and the secondary. 

LESSON II. 

Quantity and Accent Continued. 

1. What words have no Accent ? Monosyllables may have 
emphasis in a sentence but not Accent. 

2. What words have one Accent ? Dissyllables and Tri- 
syllables can have but one Accent. 

3. Illustrate. Oom-mand, ac-eent, con-de-scend, in-de- 
cent, cir-cum-stance. 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 343 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. What words have two Accents ? Polysyllables often 
have two Accents but not always and never more than two. 

6. Illustrate. Con-fis-ca-tion, af-fec-tion-ate, con-tin-u- 
a-tion, in-fal-li-bil-i-ty, in-fal-li-ble etc. 

7. Give other illustrations. 

8. Which is the primary Accent? The last Accent is 
called the primary, because it is the strongest. 

9. Which is the secondary Accent ? The first Accent is 
called the secondary, because it is the weakest. 

10. By what mark is Accent indicated ? Accent is indi- 
cated by a mark called the Acute Accent ('). 

11. Is this mark the Accent itself? This mark is not 
the Accent but is used to show, where the accent comes. 

12. Where is the mark used? This mark is used in 
Spelling Books and Dictionaries. 

13. Is it important to understand Accent ? Errors in 
Accent are the most disgraceful, we can make, because they 
prove the lack of good breeding as well as education. 

14. How can we learn Accent? There are no rules to 
teach, where the accent should be placed but it must be 
learned in three ways ; from nature, by study of the stan- 
dard Dictionaries and from observation. 

15. Whence do the lexicographers learn their accentua- 
tion? Lexicographers learn their accentuation from cus- 
tom and usage. 

16. What is Emphasis ? Emphasis is additional stress on 
one or more words of a sentence, just as Accent is additional 
stress on one or two syllables of a word. 

17. What is the difference between Accent and Emphasis ? 
Accent is to a word, what Emphasis is to a sentence. 

LESSON III. 

Accent Continued. 

1. How are Monosyllables grouped into feet ? Monosyl- 
lables are grouped into feet by Emphasis, just as other 
words are grouped by Accent 



344 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

2. Is Accent in Poetry an artificial contrivance to please 
the fanciful ? Accent in Poetry is by no means artificial 
but purely natural. 

3. How can this be proved? This can be proved by 
observing ; upon what syllables a person, who understands 
nothing about Prosody, will put stress in reading a stanza. 

4. Accent this stanza. 

A charge' to keep' I have', 
. A God' to glo'rify', 
A nev'er dy'ing soul' to save' 
And fit' it for' the sky'. 

5. Upon which syllables does the stress or Accent fall ? 
The Accent falls upon those, that are marked, as one can 
see by allowing even a child to read the stanza. 

6. How are the others read ? In the simplest and most 
unaffected reading, the unmarked syllables are cut short 
and scarcely sounded at all. 

7. Accent this stanza. 

Soft'ly now' the light' of day' 
Fades' up-on' my sight' a-way' ; 
Free' from care' from la'-bor free', 
Lord', I would' com-mune' with thee'. 

8. How is this accented ? In the preceding stanza, the 
Accent falls naturally on every alternate syllable beginning 
with the second but, in this, it naturally falls on every 
alternate syllable beginning with the first. 

9. Accent this couplet. 

" Of man's' first dis'obed'ience and' the fruit' 
Of that' forbid'den tree', whose mor'tal taste' " 

10. How is this accented ? Here the Accent naturally falls 
on every alternate syllable beginning with the second: 

11. Accent this stanza. 

"Bird' of the' wil'derness' 
Blithe' some and cum'berless, 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 345 

Sweet' be thy mat'in o'er moor'land and lea' ! 

Em'blem of hap'piness, 

Blest' is thy dwell'ing place. 

Oh' to abide' in the des'ert with thee' ! " 

12. How is this accented? The first syllable of every 
three has the Accent and the last two of every three are 
cut short. 

13. Accent this couplet. 

The flesh' was a pic'ture for pain'ters to stu'dy, 
The fat' was so white' and the lean' was so rud'dy. 

14. Where does the Accent naturally fall here? The 
Accent falls on the second of every three syllables and the 
first and third in the most natural reading are cut short or 
unaccented. 



SECOND DIVISION. 
LESSON IV. 

Ehythm. 

1. What is Ehythm? Ehythm from the Greek word 
pvdfio* is the proportionate relation of sounds making the 
flow of voice sweet and musical. 

2. What is Poetic Ehythm ? Poetic rhythm is metre or 
measured rhythm. 

3. What again is Poetry ? Poetry is discourse written in 
verses or metrical lines. 

4. Illustrate. 

" How long and dreary is the night, 
When I am frae my dearie ! 
I restless lie from .e'en to morn, 
Though I were ne'er sae weary." 

5. What is a verse ? A verse is a line of Poetry and con- 
sists of a complete and measured succession of feet. 



346 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. Illustrate. "How long and dreary is the night." 

7. What are feet? Feet are the portions; into which a 
line or verse of poetry may be divided, in which one 
accented and one or two unaccented syllables occupy a uni- 
form position with relation to each other. 

8. Illustrate. Descent, de-scent 7 , in-ter-fere', pre-sent'- 
ment, coun' -ter-feit. The flesh' was a picture for paint' ers 
to stu'dy. 

9. Give other illustrations. 

10. What is a stanza of Poetry ? A stanza is a group of 
lines or verses forming a division of a Poem. 

11. What is versification? Versification is the art of 
giving to our language Khythm and measurement and thus 
throwing it into verses. 

12. How many metrical forms of Poetry are there ? There 
may be as many metrical forms of Poetry as there are kinds 
of verse, because an entire poem may be constructed from 
each. 

13. How many kinds of verse are there ? Of the simple 
and usual kinds there may be about forty. In practice, 
however, only about thirty verses are used. 

14. How is the number calculated ? There are five usual 
kinds of feet and there may be eight kinds of verse con- 
structed from each. 

15. Name the five kinds of feet. The Iambus, the Tro- 
chee, the Dactyl, the Am-phi-brach and the Anapaest. 

16. What is metre ? Metre from ^rpov a measure is the 
kind and number of feet in a verse or line. 

17. Name the eight kinds of metre made from each foot. 
Monometer, Dimeter, Trimeter, Tetrameter, Pentameter, 
Hexameter, Heptameter and Octameter. 

18. What is the etymology of these words ? The base, 
metre, is derived from ^rpov a measure and the prefixes are 
from the Greek numerals asbelow. 

19. Place these prefixes in a column to be memorized with 
their meanings. 



SCANNING OR PEOSODY. 347 

Mono (fiovos) Alone or one. 
Di (duo) Two. 
Tri ( T pw3 2%rm 
Tetra (reo-o-ap«) ifywr. 
Penta (Trevre) Five. 
Hexa (e£) #w;. 
Hepta (eW) #evew. 
Octa (3W) -#i>R 

20. Explain the poetic formula. U stands for an unac- 
cented and a for an -accented syllable. By joining these 
the foot can be represented. The line can be represented 
by multiplying these by the figure, which represents the 
number of feet in the verse. 

21. How should the feet of a verse be separated and 
inclosed ? To illustrate Ehythm the feet of a verse may be 
separated and inclosed by heavy bars like those used in music. 

22. Illustrate. | In-close' | , | trans -pose' | . | A charge' 
| to keep' | I have' | . 

23. Illustrate farther. 

LESSON V. 
Ehythm. — The Iambus. 

1. What is an Iambus ? An Iambus is a foot of two syl- 
lables accented on the second. 

2. What is the etymology of Jambus ? Iambus comes 
from lajifios in Greek ; which is said to come from lanTto to 
attach, because it was first used in satiric poetry. 

3. What is its formula ? Ua is its formula. 

4. Give feet having the formula ua. | De-scent' |, | Trans- 
fix' | , | Re-spond' | , | Accede' | . | When I' | can read' | 
my ti' | tie clear' | . 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. How many kinds of Iambic verse are there. There are 
eight kinds of Iambic verse. 

7. What is Iambic Monometer? Iambic Monometer is 
verse, which contains one Iambic foot and has the formula ua. 



348 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



8. Illustrate and give the formula. 

" Poor me ! 
Ah wretch ! 
To Thee, 
I stretch 
My hands. 

Help me, 
I pray, 
I see 
No way 
Alone. 

Voice mild 
I hear ; 
' My child, 
Good cheer, 
I come.' 



He took 
My hands, 
He broke 
The bands 
Of sin." 



Formula ua 



9. Illustrate again. 



Praise God, 
from whom 
all bless 
iijgs flow; 
Praise Him, 
all crea 
tures here 
below ; 
Praise Him 
aboye, 
ye heav'n 
ly host ; 
Praise Fath 
er, Son 
and Ho 
ly Ghost. 



Formula ua 



SCANNING OR PEOSODY. 349 

10. What is Iambic Dimeter ? This verse has two Iambic 
feet and the formula ua X 2. 

11. Illustrate. 

Praise God, from whom 
all blessings flow ; 
Praise Him, all crea- 
tures here below ; 
Praise Him above, 
ye heav'nly host ; 
Praise Father, Son 
and Holy Ghost. Formula ua X 2, 

12. What is Iambic Trimeter? This verse has three 
Iambic feet and the formula ua X 3. 

13. Illustrate. 

Praise God, 
from whom all blessings flow ; 
Praise Him, all creatures here 
below ; Praise Him above, 
ye heav'nly host ; Praise Fath- 
er, Son and Holy Ghost. Formula ua X J. 

14. What is Iambic Tetrameter? This verse has four 
Iambic feet and the formula ua X 4. 

15. Illustrate. 

Praise God, from whom all blessings flow ; 
Praise Him, all creatures here below ; 
Praise Him above, ye heav'nly host ; 
Praise Father, Son and Holy Ghost. 

Formula ua X 4. 

16. What is Iambic Pentameter? This is verse with five 
Iambic feet and the formula ua X 5. 

17. Illustrate. 

Praise God, 
from whom all blessings flow ; Praise him, all crea- 
tures here below ; Praise Him above, ye heav'n- 
ly host ; Praise Father, Son and Holy Ghost. 

Formula ua X 5. 



350 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

18. What is Iambic Hexameter ? This is verse with six 
Iambic feet and the formula ua X 6. 

19. Illustrate. 

Praise God, from "whom all blessings flow ; 
Praise Him, all creatures here below ; Praise Him above, 
ye heav'nly host ; Praise Father, Son and Holy Ghost. 

Formula ua X 6. 

20. What is Iambic Heptameter ? This is verse with 
seven Iambic feet and the formula ua X 7. 

21. Illustrate. 

Praise God, from whom 
all blessings flow ; Praise Him, all creatures here below ; Praise Him 
above, ye heav'nly host ; Praise Father, Son and Holy Ghost. 

Formula ua X 7- 

22. What is Iambic Octameter ? The Octameter is verse 
of eight Iambic feet and the formula ua X 8. 

23. Illustrate. 

Praise God, from whom all blessings flow ; Praise Him, all creatures here below ; ■ 
Praise Him above, ye heav'nly host ; Praise Father, Son and Holy Ghost. 

Formula ua X 8. 

24. Illustrate all the eight kinds with this stanza. 

" Salvation is forever nigh 
The souls, that fear and trust the Lord, 
And Grace, descending from on high, 
Fresh hopes of glory shall afford." 

25. Give other illustrations. 

26. What is characteristic of Iambic and Anapestic 
verse ? They are stately and solemn. 

27. What is Iambic Pentameter called ? Iambic Penta- 
meter is called Heroic Verse. 

28. In what form were the stanzas given above written ? 
These stanzas were written in Tetrameter. 



LESSON VI. 

Rhythm.— -The Tkochee. 

1. What is a Trochee ? A Trochee is a foot of two syl- 
lables accented on the first. 



SCANNING OK PROSODY. 351 

2. What is the etymology of Trochee? This word is 
derived from rpex<» I Tun and conveys the idea, that this 
kind of Poetry is frolicsome and gay. 

3. What is its formula? Au is its formula. 

4. Give examples. | Descent | , | Re'-cent | , | Doc / - 
ile | , | Mass / -ive | , | Pass'-ive | , | Foun'-tain | etc. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. How many kinds of Trochaic verse are there ? There 
may be eight kinds of Trochaic verse. 

7. Give an example of Trochaic Monometer with its for- 
mula. 

Birds have 
sought a 
milder 
climate, 

Humming 

bees have 
ceased their 
labor, 

Squirrels 
laid up 
store of 
acorns, 

All now 

welcome 

snowy 

winter. Formula au. 

8. Give an example of Trochaic Dimeter with its for- 
mula. 

Birds have sought a 

milder climate, 

Humming bees have 

ceased their labor, 

Squirrels laid up 

store of acorns, 

All now welcome 

snowy winter. Formula au X 2, 



352 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. Give an example of Trochaic Trimeter with its for- 
mula. 

Birds have 
sought a milder climate, 
Humming bees have ceased their 
labor, Squirrels laid up 
store of acorns, All now 
welcome snowy winter. Formula au X J. 

10. Give an example of Trochaic Tetrameter with its for- 
mula. 

Birds have sought a milder climate, 
Humming bees have ceased their labor, 
Squirrels laid up store of acorns, 
All now welcome snowy winter. 

Formula au X 4. 

11. Give an example of Trochaic Pentameter with its for- 
mula. 

Birds have 
Sought a milder climate, Humming bees have 
ceased their labor, Squirrels laid up store of 
acorns, All now welcome snowy winter. 

Formula au X 5. 

12. Give an example of Trochaic Hexameter with its for- 
mula. 

Birds have sought a milder climate, 
Humming bees have ceased their labor, Squirrels laid up 
store of acorns, All now welcome snowy winter. 

Formula au X 6. 

13. Give an example of Trochaic Heptameter with its 
formula. 

Birds have sought a 
milder climate, Humming bees have ceased their labor, Squirrels 
laid up store of acorns, All now welcome snowy winter. 

Formula au x 7> 

14. Give an example of Trochaic Octameter with its for- 
mula. 

Birds have sought a milder climate, Humming bees have ceased their labor, 
Squirrels laid up store of acorns, All now welcome snowy winter. 

Formula au x 8. 

15. For what was this stanza written ? This stanza was 
written for either Tetrameter or Octameter. 

16. Illustrate again, with another selection, Trochaic 
verse. 



SCANNING OE PROSODY. 353 

17. How do Trochaic and Dactylic differ from Iambic and 
Anapestic verse? Trochaic and Dactylic are frolicsome 
and gay, whereas Iambic and Anapestic are stately, grave 
and solemn. 

LESSON VII. 

Ehythm. — The Dactyl. 

1. What is a Dactyl ? A Dactyl is a foot with three syl- 
lables accented on the Antepenult or the first. 

2. What is the etymology of Dactyl ? Dactyl comes from 
8aKTv\os a finger, and means; that the foot is like the finger, 
which has one long and two short joints. This the Ana- 
pest strikes hack or reverses. 

3. Illustrate. | Cir'-cum-spect | , | SuV-ter-fuge | , 
| Ref'-u-gee | , | Fu'-gi-tive | , | Bal'-us-trade | etc. 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. What is the formula? Auu is the formula. 

6. Why can the Trochee be used with the Dactyl in com- 
posite yerse ? Composite verse can be constructed from the 
Dactyl and the Trochee, because both have the accent on 
the first syllable. 

7. How many kinds of Dactylic verse are there ? There 
are eight kinds of Dactylic verse. 

8. Illustrate Dactylic Monometer with its formula. 

Could he but 
have a glimpse 
into fu- 
turity, 

Well might he 
fight against 
farther ma- 
turity. 
Yet does it 
seem to me, 
as if his 
purity 

Were against 
sinfulness 
ample se- 
curity. Formula auu. 



354 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

9. Give Dactylic Dimeter with its formula. 

Could he but have a glimpse 

into futurity, 

Well might he fight against 

farther maturity. 

Yet does it seem to me, 

as if his purity 

Were against sinfulness 

ample security. Formula auu X 2. 

10. Give Dactylic Trimeter with the formula. 

Could he but 
have a glimpse into futurity, 
Well might he fight against farther ma- 
turity. Yet does it seem to me, 
as if his purity Were against 
sinfulness ample security. 

Formula auu X 3. 

11. Give Dactylic Tetrameter with the formula. 

Could he but have a glimpse into futurity, 
Well might he fight against farther maturity. 
Yet does it seem to me, as if his purity 
Were against sinfulness ample security. 

Formula auu X 4* 

12. Give Dactylic Pentameter with the formula. 

Could he but 
have a glimpse into futurity, Well might he fight against 
farther maturity. Yet does it seem to me, as if his 
purity Were against sinfulness ample security. 

Formula auu X 5. 

13. Give Dactylic Hexameter with the formula. 

Could he but have a glimpse into futurity, 
Well might he fight against farther maturity. Yet does it seem to me, 
as if his purity Were against sinfulness ample security. 

Formula auu X 6. 



SCANNING OK PEOSODT. 355 

14. G-ive Dactylic Heptameter with the formula. 

Could he but have a glimpse 
Into futurity, Well might he fight against farther maturity. Tet does it 
seem to me, as if his purity Were against sinfulness ample security. 

Formula auu x 7. 

15. Give Dactylic Octameter with the formula. 

Could he but have a glimpse into futurity, Well might he fight against farther maturity. 
Yet does it seem to me, as if his purity Were against sinfulness ample security. 

Formula auu x 8. 

16. What was the original form of this verse? The 
original form of these verses was Tetrameter. 

17. How does Dactylic Poetry generally end ? The Dac- 
tylic verse rarely ends in a Dactyl but generally in a Tro- 
chee or a broken foot of one long syllable. 

18. Are there any other feet besides these ? There are 
the Spondee, consisting of two long syllables; the Pyrrhic 
consisting of two unaccented or short syllables and the Tri- 
brach rarely used consisting of three unaccented or short 
syllables. 

19. Are entire verses ever made of these ? Entire verses 
are never made of the Spondee, Pyrrhic or Tribrach. These 
feet are interspersed with others in composite verse. 

20. Are there many examples of composite verse? Verse 
is often composite. 

21. How are these to be scanned ? These verses are to 
be scanned by studying out the correspondence between the 
lines or verses. 

22. What kind of language is that, which is written in 
verses having no correspondence between them ? Such lan- 
guage is neither poetry nor good prose. 



LESSON VIII. 

Khythm.— The Anapest. 

1. What is an Anapest ? An Anapest is a foot with three 
syllables accented on the last. 

2. What is the etymology of Anapest ? This word comes 



356 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

from ava up or lack and nam I strike and means the Dactyl 
struck back, reversed or turned end for end. 

3. Why can the Iambus and the Anapest be used in the 
same verse ? The Anapest and Iambus can be used in the 
same verse, because they both accent the ultima or last 
syllable. 

4. What is this mixed poetry called ? This mixed poetry 
is called composite verse to distinguish it from that, which is 
simple or unmixed. 

5. What is the formula of this foot ? The formula is uua. 

6. Illustrate. | O-ver-rate' | , | Ke-con-struct' | , | Sub- 
divide 7 | , | In-ter-fere' | , | Ag-gra-vate' | . 

7. How many kinds of Anapestic verse are there ? There 
may be eight kinds of Anapestic verse. 

8. Give an example of Anapestic Monometer with its 
formula. 

Then the child, 
in her won- 
der, forgot 
all her fright 
And her long 
weary tramp, 
through the cold 
and the night ; 
Crept up close 
to the win- 
dow and heard 
such a din 
Of gay voi- 
ces and laugh- 
ter, she longed 
to peep in. Formula uua. 

9. Illustrate Anapestic Dimeter with its formula. 

And the child, in her won- 
der, forgot all her fright 
And her long weary tramp, 
through the cold and the night ; 
Crept up close to the win- 
dow and heard such a din 
Of gay voices and laugh- 
ter, she longed to peep in. Formula uuaX2. 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 357 

10. With these same sixteen feet illustrate Anapestic Tri- 
meter with its formula. 

And the child, 
in her wonder, forgot all her fright 
And her long weary tramp, through the cold 
and the night; Crept up close to the win- 
dow and heard such a din Of gay voi- 
ces and laughter, she longed to peep in. 

Formula uuaXj. 

11. With these feet illustrate Anapestic Tetrameter and 
giye the formula. 

And the child, in her wonder, forgot all her fright 
And her long weary tramp, through the cold and the night ; 
Crept up close to the window and heard such a din 
Of gay voices and laughter, she longed to peep in, 

Formula uua X 4. 

12. Give an illustration of Anapestic Pentameter with its 
formula. 

And the child, 
in her wonder, forgot all her fright And her long weary tramp, 
through the cold and the night ; Crept up close to the window and heard 
such a din Of gay voices and laughter, she longed to peep in. 

Formula uua X 5. 

13. Give Anapestic Hexameter with its formula. 

And the child, in her wonder, forgot all her fright 
And her long weary tramp through the cold and the night; Crept up close to the win- 
dow and heard such a din Of gay voices and laughter, she longed to peep in. 

Formula uua X 6. 

14. Give a sample of Anapestic Heptameter with its for- 
mula. 

And the child, in her won- 
der, forgot all her fright And her long weary tramp, through the cold and the night ; Crept up close 
to the window and heard such a din Of gay voices and laughter, she longed to peep in. 

Formula uua X ?• 

15. Give Anapestic Octameter. 

the child, in her wonder, forgot all her fright And her lor 
pt up close to the window and heard such a din Of gay 

16. Illustrate with another selection of Anapestic Poetry. 



And the child, in her wonder, forgot all her fright And her long weary tramp, through the cold and the night 
Crept up close to the window and heard such a din Of gay voices and laughter, she longed to peep in. 

Formula uua X 8. 



358 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON IX. 

Rhythm.— The Amphibrach. 

1. What is an Amphibrach ? An Amphibrach is a foot of 
three syllables accented on the penult or the syllable next 
to the last or the middle syllable. 

2. What is the etymology of Amphibrach? Amphi- 
brach comes from a/z$i on both sides and ppaxvs short and 
hence means one short on both sides of a long. 

3. Why can the Trochee and the Amphibrach be used to 
form composite verse ? Because they are both accented on 
the penult. 

4. Give examples of the foot. | Re-sent'-ful, | Pre-vent A - 
ive, | In-cent'-ive, | Dif-fu'-sive. | 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. What is the formula? The Amphibrach formula is 
uau. 

7. How many kinds of Amphibrach are there? There 
are eight kinds of Amphibrach verse. 

8. Give Amphibrach Monometer with its formula. 

Among the 

green leaflets, 

the squirrel 

is springing; 

On treetop 

above us, 

the mockbird 

is singing ; 

The bluebird 

is busy ; 

the bees are 

all humming ; 

All nature 

rejoices, 

for springtime 

is coming. Formula uau. 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 359 

9. Give Amphibrach Dimeter with its formula. 

Among the green leaflets, 
the squirrel is springing ; 
On treetop above us, 
the mockbird is singing ; 
The bluebird is busy ; 
the bees are all humming; 
All nature rejoices, 
for springtime is coming. 

Formula uau X 2, 

10. Give Amphibrach Trimeter with its formula. 

Among the 
green leaflets, the squirrel is springing ; 
On treetop above us, the mockbird 
is singing; The bluebird is busy ; 
the bees are all humming ; All nature 
rejoices, for springtime is coming. 

Formula uau X j. 

11. Give Amphibrach Tetrameter with its formula. 

Among the green leaflets, the squirrel is springing; 
On treetop above us, the mockbird is singing ; 
The bluebird is busy ; the bees are all humming ; 
All nature rejoices, for springtime is coming. 

Formula uau X 4. 

12. Give Amphibrach Pentameter with its formula. 

Among the 
green leaflets, the squirrel is springing ; On treetop above us, 
the mockbird is singing ; The bluebird is busy ; the bees are 
all humming ; All nature rejoices, for springtime is coming. 

Formula uau X 5, 

13. G-ive Amphibrach Hexameter with its formula. 

Among the green leaflets, the squirrel Is springing ; 
On treetop above us, the mockbird is singing ; The bluebird is busy ; 
the bees are all humming; All nature rejoices, for springtime is coming. 

Formula uau x 6. 



360 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

14. G-ive Amphibrach Heptameter with its formula. 

Among the green leaflets, 
the squirrel is springing ; On treetop above us, the mockbird is singing ; The bluebird 
is busy ; the bees are all humming ; All nature rejoices, for springtime is coming. 

Formula uau X 7. 

15. Give Amphibrach Octameter. 

Among the green leaflets, the squirrel is springing ; On treetop above us, the mockbird is singing ; 
The bluebird is busy ; the bees are all humming ; All nature rejoices, for springtime is ooming. 

Formula uau X 8. 

16. What is the original form of this verse ? This verse 
was written for either Dimeter, Tetrameter, or Octameter. 

17. Illustrate with another selection of Amphibrach verse. 



LESSON X. 

Ehythm. — The Iambus and Trochee. 

1. Mention Iambic Poems. "The Paradise Lost" by 
" The Prince of British Poets," is Iambic blank verse. Also 
all the Long Metre, Short Metre and Common Metre Hymns 
are Iambic. 

2. What is Long Metre ? In Long Metre the stanza has 
four Iambic Tetrameter verses. 

3. Illustrate. 

" Before Jehovah's awful throne, 
Ye nations bow with sacred joy ; 
Know, that the Lord is God alone, 
He can create and He destroy." 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. What is Common Metre ? In Common Metre, the first 
and third verses are Iambic Tetrameter and the second and 
fourth Iambic Trimeter. 

6. Illustrate. 

" Ben Battle was a soldier bold 
And used to war's alarms ; 
(But) A cannon ball took off his legs, 
So he laid down his arms." 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 361 

7. Give other illustrations. 

8. What is Short Metre ? In Short Metre the first, second 
and fourth verses are Iambic Trimeter and the third is 
Iambic Tetrameter. 

9. Illustrate. 

" Is this the kind return 
And these the thanks we owe 
Thus to abuse Eternal Love, 
Whence all our blessings flow ? " 

10. Give other illustrations. 

11. Mention Trochaic Poems. Longfellow's Psalm of 
Life is Trochaic Trimeter Hypercatalectic and all the 
hymns marked sevens (7's) are the same. Also "The 
Eaven " by Poe. 

12. Illustrate. 

" Jesus, let me cleave to Thee ; 
Thou my one thing needful be ; 
Let me choose the better part ; 
Let me give thee all my heart." 

13. Illustrate by other examples. 

14. What is a Oatalectic Verse? A Verse Oatalectic, 
from KaraXrjya) to leave off, is either Dactylic or Amphibrach 
and has the last syllable left off at the end. 

15. Illustrate. 

Dactylic. 
| Brightest and | best 7 of the | sons 7 of the | mor'ning | 

Amphibrach. 
| Your ver r -y | good mut'-ton's | a ver'-y | good treat 7 | 

16. Give other illustrations. 

17. How can the formula be made to correctly represent 
a Oatalectic verse ? The formula, to correctly represent a 
catalectic verse, should end in a fraction. 

18. Illustrate with Dactylic. 

| Brightest and | best 7 of the | sons 7 of the | mor'ning | 

Formula auu X jf . 



362 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

19. What would this be called? This would be called 
Dactylic Tetrameter Catalectic, which means four feet 
with one syllable lacking. 

20. Why cannot the Anapest and the Iambus be Oata- 
lectic ? Because the last syllable has the accent and the 
accented syllable cannot be left off. 

21. What is Hypermeter or Hypercatalectic Verse? A 
Verse Hypercatalectic, from vnep over and KaraXrjyco to leave 
has one syllable over at the end. 

22. To what does this apply? Only Trochaic or Dac- 
tylic verses are Hypercatalectic, because in these the accent 
is on the first syllable and the one left over is generally, if 
not always, accented and of course would always be the first 
syllable of the next foot. 

23. Illustrate. 

Trochee. | Soft'ly | now' the | light' of | day'. | 
Dactyl. | Dawn' on our | dark'ness and | lend' us thine | 
aid'. | 

24. Give other illustrations. 

25. How can the formula be made to correctly represent 
the Hypercatalectic verse ? The formula can be made to 
correctly represent the Hypercatalectic verse by placing a 
fraction at the end of it. 

26. Illustrate with the Dactyl. 

| Dawn' on our | dark'ness and | lend' us thine | aid'. | 

Formula auu X ji. 

27. What would this verse be called ? This verse would 
be called Dactylic Trimeter Hypercatalectic, which means 
three Dactyls with one syllable over. 

28. What is an Acatalectic Verse ? A Verse Acatalectic, 
from a privative and kutuXcktikos left over, is one having no 
odd syllable. 

29. Illustrate. 

| My soul' | be on' | thy guard'. | 

30. Give other illustrations. 



SCANNING OK PROSODY. 363 

LESSON XI. 

Ehythm. — Anapest and Amphibrach. 

1. Mention Anapestic Poems. Glenara, Erin's Isle, 
Lochiel's Warning etc. from Campbell are Anapestic. 
Also some of Scott's poems and all hymns called twelves and 
elevens (12's & ll's) are Anapestic. Also " Nellie's Christ- 
mas Eve " by Miss Fanny Wight. 

2. Illustrate. 

" heard ye yon pibroch sound sad in the gale, 
Where a band cometh slowly with weeping and wail ? 
'Tis the chief of Glenara, laments for his dear, 
And her sire and the people are called to her bier." 

^Glenara, Campbell. 

3. Give another. 

" Thou art gone to the grave but we will not deplore thee, 
Though sorrows and darkness encompass the tomb, 
For the Savior has passed through its portals before thee 
And the lamp of his love is thy guide through the gloom." 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. Are all the possible Anapestic verses used? Ana- 
pestic verses longer than the Pentameter rarely occur. 

6. Mention Amphibrach Poems. All hymns called 
elevens (ll's) are Amphibrach. Also ll's & 8's. Also 7's & 
6's a composite measure is in part Amphibrach. 

7. Illustrate. 

" eyes, that are weary, and hearts, that are sore ; 
Look off unto Jesus and sorrow no more: 
The light of His countenance shineth so bright; 
That, here as in Heaven, there need be no night." 

8. Give other illustrations. 

9. What are 10's & ll's ? These are Amphibrach compo- 
site. 

10. Illustrate Amphibrach composite verse. 



364 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

11. Mention Dactylic Poems. The Soldier's Wife from 
Southey. The Boat Song in " Lady of the Lake " by Sir 
Walter Scott and all hymns marked tens (10's) are Dactylic 
and the latter kind is Hypercatalectic. 

12. Illustrate. 

Joyfully joyfully onward we move, 
Bound to the land of bright spirits above ; 
Angelic choristers sing, as we come, 
" Joyfully joyfully haste to your home '•; 
Soon, with our pilgrimage ended below, 
Home to the land of bright spirits we go ; 
Pilgrims and strangers no more shall we roam, 
Joyfully joyfully resting at home. 

13. Give other illustrations. 

14. What is an Epic Poem? An Epic Poem, from eW a 
word or narrative, is a narrative poem. 

15. Give some Epic Authors. Homer, Virgil, Milton. 

16. Give other Epic Poems. 

17. What is a Dramatic Poem? A Drama, from bpaa to 
do, is a poem, which is not narrated like the epic but acted. 

18. Give illustrations. 

19. What are the varieties of Drama ? Some of the kinds 
of Drama are Tragedy, Comedy, Satire, Opera etc. 

20. What is Tragedy ? A Tragedy is a Dramatic poem, 
which excites the violent feelings of the readers or spec- 
tators. 

21. Give some Tragic authors. Shakespeare and others. 

22. What is a Comedy ? A Comedy is a dramatic poem, 
which excites mirth and laughter. 

23. Give Authors. Plautus and others. 

24. What is a Satire? A Satire is a cutting, sarcastic 
Drama. 

25. Give Authors. Wycherly and others. 

26. What is an Opera? An Opera, from opera worh, is a 
musical drama or a poem to be acted, played on instruments 
and sung. 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 365 

27. What is an Elegy ? An Elegy is a funeral poem, a 
dirge or any mournful song. 

28. Giye Authors. Gray and others. 

29. What is Elegiac Stanza ? Elegiac stanza is four 
Iambic Pentameter or Heroic verses, rhyming alternately. 

30. Illustrate. 

" Thou knowest : how transport fills the tender breast, 
Where love and fancy fix their opening reign ; 
How nature strives, in livelier colors dressed, 
To bless their union and to grace their train." 

31. Mention an Elegiac Poem. Gray's Elegy. 



THIED DIVISION. 
LESSON XII. 

Ehyme.— Perfect Ehyme.— Single. — Double.— Triple. 

1. What is Ehyme ? Ehyme is a similarity of sound be- 
tween corresponding syllables of two or more verses or of 
the first and last parts of the same verse. 

2. Illustrate. 

| Children | of the | heavenly | king, \ 
| As ye | journey | sweetly | sing. \ 

3. How many kinds of Ehyme are there ? There are two 
kinds of Ehyme final and middle and these are either single, 
double or triple. 

4. Must the Ehyming verses stand together or in consec- 
utive lines ? They must stand either together or at no great 
distance. 

5. How far may the Ehyming verses be separated ? They 
are often separated by two lines coming between them but 
rarely more. 

6. Illustrate, 



366 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

How happy are they. 

Who their Savior obey, 
And have laid up their treasures above ! 

! what tongue can express 

The sweet comfort and peace 
Of a soul in its earliest love ! 

7. Give other illustrations. 

8. What is the first division of the Subject ? The first 
division of the subject is into Perfect and Imperfect Ehyme. 

9. What is Perfect Ehyme? Perfect Rhyme depends 
upon three requisites. 

10. What is the first? The first requisite of Perfect 
Rhyme is, that the Rhyming syllables should have the same 
vowel sounds. 

11. Illustrate. In the example above the rhyming 
words are "king" and "sing" and these both have the 
second sound of i, — as in pin. 

12. Give other illustrations and explain them. 

13. What is the second? The second requisite is, that 
the consonant sounds following the vowel shall be alike in 
both words. 

14. Illustrate. In the example given, the words " king " 
and "sing" we have the sound of the double consonant 
" ng" in each, as in song. 

15. Give and explain other examples. 

16. What is the third requisite of Perfect Rhyme ? The 
third requisite is, that the consonant sounds before the 
vowel sound shall be unlike. 

17. Illustrate. Taking the same words "king" and 
" sing" we find the vowel i has before it the sound of " k " 
in the first and the sound of " s " in the second. 

18. Give and explain other examples of Perfect Rhyme. 

Up to the hills, where angels lie 

And living waters gently roll ; 

Fain would my thoughts leap out and fly 

But sin hangs heavy on my soul. 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 367 

19. How are these Ehymes ? The Ehyme between " roll " 
and " soul " is perfect but that between " lie " and "fly " is 
not. 

20. Why is this not perfect? The reason is, that although 
they have the same vowel sounds, the first sound of " i " and 
the first sound of " y " and these are followed by the same 
or no sound, still they haye the same consonant sound, that 
of "1," before the vowel and this violates the third requisite. 

21. Give other illustrations. 

LESSON XIII. 

Rhyme Continued.— Imperfect Ehyme.— Single.— 
Double. — Triple. 

1. What is an Imperfect Ehyme ? An Imperfect Ehyme 
lacks one or two or all of the requisites of Perfect Ehyme. 

2. Give two words, that lack the first requisite. The 
words "home" and "come " lack the first requisite, because 
" home " has the first sound of o,— as in no, and " come " 
has the sixth, — as in dove. 

3. Give other illustrations. 

4. Give two words, that lack the second requisite. 
" Eeach" and "freak" have the same vowel sound, the first 
sound of e, but are followed by different consonant sounds, 
that of ch and that of k. 

5. Give other illustrations. 

6. Give two words, which lack the third requisite. Eock 
and Eock have the same consonant sound before the vowel 
and so lack the third requisite, though they have the first 
and second. 

7. Give other illustrations. 

8. What kind of syllables alone can rhyme? Only 
accented syllables can have single rhyme. 

9. Illustrate by any selection of Poetry. 

10. What is Single Ehyme ? Single Ehyme is, where the 
accented syllable closes the verse. 

11. Illustrate. 



368 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" I sink amid my fears 
And melt in flowing tears" 

12. Give other illustrations. 

13. What is Double Ehyme? Double Ehyme exists, 
where each of the rhyming syllables is followed by a short 
syllable. 

14. Illustrate. 

" I thought upon the banks o' Coil, 
I thought upon my Nancy, 
I thought upon the witching smile, 
That caught my youthful fancy" 

— The Warrior 7 s Return, Burns. 

15. G-ive other illustrations. 

16. What is Triple Rhyme ? Triple Rhyme is, where the 
rhyming syllable is followed by two unaccented syllables. 

17. Illustrate. 

" Could he but have a glimpse 
Into futurity, 

Well might he fight against 
Farther maturity. 
Yet does it seem to me, 
As if his purity 
Were against sinfulness 
Ample security. 

18. Give other illustrations. 

19. What measures can have Double Rhyme ? Trochaic or 
Amphibrach only can have double rhyme. 

20. Why ? Because the Trochaic and Amphibrach are 
the only measures, in which the accented syllable is followed 
by one short syllable. 

21. Illustrate. 

| She dress / es | so neat'ly, \ 
j She whistles | so sweetly. \ 

22. Give other illustrations. 

23. What measures can have Triple Rhyme ? Dactylic 
only can have triple rhyme, because in this only the accented 
syllable is followed by two short syllables. 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 369 

24. Illustrate. 

" Take her up tenderly, 
Lift her with care ; 
Fashioned so slenderly, 
Young and so fair." 

25. What Acatalectic measures only can have single 
rhyme? Iambic and Anapestic measures only can haye 
single rhyme. 

26. Why ? Because these are the only verses, that end in 
an accented syllable unless they are hypercatalectic. 

27. Illustrate. 

Iambus. Anapest. 

| Do not / | destroy' \ | To destroy' \ 

J The lit'- | tie hoy'. | | His own boy'. | 

28. Give other illustrations. 

LESSON XIV. 

Khtme Continued. — Middle Ehyme. — Single. — 
Double. — Triple. — Pauses. 

1. How many kinds of Middle Ehyme are there ? There 
are two varieties of Middle Khyme. The first is between 
two or three lines and the second is between the middle and 
last parts of the same line. 

2. How many Pauses are there in every verse ? There 
are two Pauses in every verse, the final and the caesural. 

3. What is the Final Pause ? This is a Pause to be made 
at the close of every line of Poetry and, with the caesural 
pause, should be marked by a heavy Grave Accent. 

4. Illustrate by using the heavy grave accent. 

A charge to keep I have, 
A God to glorify, 
A never-dying soul to save 
And fit it for the sky. 



370 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. What is the Caesura ? The Caesura is a pause near 
the middle of the verse. 

6. Illustrate by using the heavy grave accent. 

" 'Twas on that dark, that doleful night, 
The powers of earth and hell arose 
Against the Son of God's delight 
And friends betrayed him to his foes." 

7. Do all verses have this Pause ? Very short lines do 
not have this Pause. 

8. Give other examples showing the pauses. 

9. "What is the first variety of Middle Ehyme ? The first 
variety is Ehyme ; either single, double or triple ; occurring 
before the Caesura of two or more different lines or verses. 

10. Illustrate. 

| Though troubles | 2&saiV | and dan 7 gers | affright 7 | 
| Though friends 7 should | sllfaiV | and foes 7 all | unite 7 . | 

11. Give other illustrations. 

12. What is a Couplet ? A Couplet is two lines rhyming 
together. 

13. Illustrate. 

I sink amid my fears 
And melt in flowing tears. 

14. Give other examples. 

15. What is a Triplet ? A Triplet is three lines rhyming 
together. 

16. Illustrate. 

Every worm, beneath the moon, 

Draws different threads and, late or soon, 

Spins toiling out his own cocoon. 

17. Improvise a Triplet. 

18. Give another Triplet. 



SCANNING OR PEOSODY. 371 

Why she's good as a kitten to purr and to play 
And she's good as a brooklet to sing on its way 
And she's good as the sunshine to brighten the day. 

19. Give others. 

20. Give two Couplets with the first variety of single 
middle Khyme. 

The spirit, like some heavenly wind, blows on the sons of flesh, 

New models all the carnal mind and forms the man afresh ; 

Our quickened souls awake and rise from the long sleep of death, 

On heavenly things we fix our eyes and praise employs our breath. 

21. Give another illustration. 

22. Give a Couplet with double middle Khyme. 

" Yet one thing secures us, whatever betide, 
The Scripture assures us, the Lord will provide." 

23. Give other illustrations. 

24. Give a Couplet with the first variety of triple middle 
Ehyme. 

| Take 7 her up | ten'derly, | lift 7 her with | care 7 , 

| Fashioned so | slen f derly, | young 7 and so | fair 7 . 

25. Give other illustrations. 

26. What is the second variety of middle Rhyme ? The 
second variety is Ehyme either single, double or triple oc- 
curring before the caesural and final pauses of the same line. 

27. Illustrate this kind single. 

| God 7 let him | trust, | for 7 He is | just 
| But, if you | will, | give him a | pill. 

28. Give another illustration. 

29. Illustrate double Rhyme of this kind. 



372 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

\ \ 

Yet one thing secures us, the Scripture assures us ; 
That, though we be strangers, we need fear no dangers. 

30. Give and explain another example. 

31. Illustrate the second variety of middle triple Rhyme. 

N V 

Could he but have a glimpse into futurity, well might he fight against farther maturity. 

\ v 

Yet does it seem to me, as if his purity were against sinfulness ample security. 

32. Give and explain other examples. 

33. What other subject is embraced in that of Rhyme ? 
The selection of words is embraced in that of Rhyme and is 
one of the most important features of poetry. 

34. Why is the selection of words so important in poetry ? 
The selection of words is so important in poetry ; because 
inspiration", without which poetry cannot exist, resides 
not in the Rhyme, not in the Rhythm, not in the kind of 
Rhythm but in the words. 

35. How can inspiration and choice of words be learned ? 
He, who has inspiration, can choose words and he, who can 
choose words, has inspiration. Neither of these powers can 
be acquired. Though the poet, however, must be born with 
them ; they can be improved by cultivation. 



FOURTH DIVISION. 
LESSON XV. 

Transposition. 

1. What is Transposition ? Transposition is the turning 
of Prose into Poetry or Poetry into Prose. 

2. What is Prose? Prose is Discourse written in lan- 
guage as ordinarily used having neither Rhyme nor Rhythm. 

3. Illustrate. 

" The science of pleading, though vying with most other 
branches of our law in antiquity and always among the 
highest in professional estimation, has been among the last 
to receive satisfactory illustration from the press." 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 373 

4. Give other illustrations. 

5. What is Poetry? Poetry is Discourse written in 
Ehythmic verses. 

6. Illustrate. 

" But of the fruit of this fair tree amidst 
The garden God hath said ; ye shall not eat 
Thereof nor shall ye touch it, lest ye die. 

— Par. Lost, IV. 660. 

7. Give other illustrations. 

8. How many kinds of Poetry are there ? There are two 
kinds, Khyme and Blank verse. 

9. What is Ehyme ? Poetry is called Rhyme, when it is 
written in Ehyme. 

10. Illustrate. 

" Up to the hills, where angels lie 
And living waters gently roll, 
Fain would my thoughts leap out and fly 
But sin hangs heavy on my soul" 

11. Give other illustrations. 

12. What is Blank verse ? Poetry, written without Ehyme, 
is called Blank verse. 

13. Illustrate. ' 

I thence 
Invoke thy aid to my adventurous song ; 
That, with no middle flight, intends to soar 
Above the Aonian mount, while it pursues 
Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme. 

14. Give other illustrations. 

15. Mention some authors, who wrote in Blank verse. 
Milton, Shakespeare, Young etc. 

16. Mention others. 

17. What are the earliest compositions in any language ? 
The first books of every language are not Prose, as we would 
naturally suppose, but Poetry or verse. 

18. Illustrate. We have an instance of this in Homer. 



374 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Also the western Indians are said to recite long and well 
measured Epics at their war meetings. 

19. Give other instances. 

20. Why can the uncultured mind produce Poetry better 
than Prose ? Because Poetry, as a Fine Art, is the product 
of Poetic inspiration or genius, which both moves and 
directs the intellect. 

21. Which are the Fine Arts? Poetry, Painting, Music, 
Sculpture and Architecture are the Fine Arts. 

LESSON XVI. 
The Mind. — Transposition. 

1. What are the cardinal powers or faculties of the mind ? 
The cardinal faculties of the mind are the Intellect, the 
Sensibility and the Will. 

2. Illustrate. When we see a moral action performed for 
instance a murder or the saving of a valued life, the action 
becomes to us an object of thought. We have an action of 
the Intellect judging and deciding, whether the action is 
good or bad; we also have an emotion of approval or disap- 
proval by the Sensibility according to and following the 
judgment; we have also a volition of the Will to punish or 
reward according to the judgment and emotion. 

3. Which faculty acts first ? The Intellect acts first and 
judges of the nature of the object; for, if it did not, we 
could not know whether to approve or disapprove of the 
object. 

4. Which faculty acts second ? The Sensibility acts sec- 
ond and approves or disapproves of the object ; for, if it did 
not, you could not know whether to will a punishment or a 
reward. 

5. Which acts third ? The Will acts third and last, pun- 
ishing or rewarding according to the judgment and emotion. 

6. What is a Fine Art ? A Fine Art is the object and 
product more of the Sensibility or feelings or taste than of 
the Intellect. 



SCANNING OR PKOSODY. 375 

7. What does the faculty of Sensibility or Taste do ? 
The action of this mental power, the Taste, is necessary 
both to create the Fine Arts and to appreciate them, when 
they are created by other persons. 

8. Why then do the savage and the uncultured write 
Poetry first ? Because the powers of mind; by which Poetry 
is constructed, though not less noble, are more spontaneous, 
involuntary and self-acting and hence less dependent upon 
education. 

9. Illustrate. Though neither Butler nor Blackstone 
could have written Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, still it re- 
quired much less education than the Analogy or the Com- 
mentaries. 

10. Give other illustrations. 

11. Which then is the more natural form of language? 
Poetry or verse is the more natural kind of composition. 

12. What is Transposition? Transposition is turning 
Prose into Poetry or Poetry into Prose. 

13. What is the first kind of Transposition ? The first 
kind of Transposition is that of Prose into Poetry. 

14. For what is the first kind of Transposition practiced ? 
The first kind of Transposition should be practiced, in order 
that we may learn the construction of Poetry or verse. 

15. What must we know to be able to transpose Prose 
into verse? We must know the four parts of Grammar; 
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. 

16. Will this knowledge make any one a poet ? Although 
Industry is the better part of Genius, yet no one, it is 
thought, can become a poet, who does not possess the pecu- 
liar natural qualification called Poetic Inspiration and 
alluded to on a former page. 

17. How can we discover whether or not we have this 
qualification? By trying to write verse. Some persons, 
late in life and by accident, discover, that they are poets. 

18. How is Verse constructed from Prose? Verse is 
made from Prose by transposing the words and elements. 

19. For what purpose are the words and elements trans- 



376 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

posed ? For Rhythm, for Rhyme and for elegance of ex- 
pression. 

20. Transpose this sentence. 

" Ye are the salt of the earth but, if the salt have lost his 
savor, wherewith shall it be salted ? It is thenceforth 
good for nothing but to be cast out and to be trodden under 
foot of men." 

| Ye're of | the earth' | 

| the salt' | but, if | the salt' | 

| have lost' | his sa'- | vor, where'- | 

| with shall' | it salt'- | ed be' ? | 

| It is' | hence-forth' | for noth'- | 

| ing good' | ex-cept' | to be' | 

| cast out' | and un'- | der foot' | 

| of men' | to trod'- | den be'. | 

Formula ua X 3. 

21. Turn this into Long Metre. 

(1). I Ye're of | the earth' | the salt' | but, if | 

I the salt' I have lost' | his sa'- | vor, where'- | 

| t with shall' | it salt'- | ed be' ? | It is' | 

I hence-forth' | for noth'- | ing good' | ex-cept' | 

(2). I to be' I cast out' | and un'- | der foot' | 

I of men' | to trod'- | den be', | ex-cept' | 

I to be' I cast out', | cast out' | and un'- | 

I der foot' | of men' | to trod'- | den be'. | 

Formula ua X J. 

22. Now give this in Common Metre. 

(1). I Ye're of | the earth' | the salt' | but, if | 
I the salt' I have lost' | his sa'- | 
I vor, where'- | with shall' | it salt'- | ed be' ? | 
I It is' I hence-forth' | for noth'- 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 377 

(2). | ing good 7 | ex-cept 7 | to be 7 | cast out 7 | 
| and un 7 - | der foot 7 | of men | 
| to trod 7 - | den be 7 , | and un 7 - | der foot 7 | 
| of men 7 | to trod 7 - | den be 7 . | 

Formulas uax 3 and ua X 4. 

23. Now give this in Short Metre. 
(1). I Ye're of 7 | the earth 7 | the salt 7 | 

I but, if 7 I the salt 7 | have lost 7 | 

I his sa 7 - I vor, where 7 - | with shall 7 | it salt 7 - | 

I ed be 7 ? | It is 7 | hence-forth 7 | 

(2). I for noth 7 - | ing good 7 | ex-cept 7 | 
I to be 7 J cast out 7 | and un 7 - | 
I der foot 7 | of men 7 | to trod 7 - | den be 7 , | 
I of men 7 | to trod 7 - | den be 7 . | 

Formulas uax 3 and ua X 4. 

24. Now give this in Iambic Pentameter, the metre of 
Paradise Lost. 

I Ye're of 7 | the earth 7 | the salt 7 | 

I but, if 7 I the salt 7 | have lost 7 | his sa 7 - | vor, where 7 - | 
I with shall 7 | it salt 7 - [ ed be 7 ? | It is 7 | hence-forth 7 | 
I for noth 7 - | ing good 7 | ex-cept 7 | to be 7 | cast out 7 | 
I and un 7 - | der foot 7 | of men 7 | to trod 7 - | den be 7 . | 

Formula ua X 5. 

25. Transpose this selection. 

" Ye are the light of the world. A city, that is set on a 
hill cannot be hid. Neither do men light a candle and put 
it under a bushel but on a candlestick and it giveth light 
unto all, that are in the house." 

26. After finding the feet change it into Long, Common 
and Short Metre. Also Iambic Pentameter. 



378 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XVII. 

Transposition Continued. 

1. What is the second kind of Transposition ? The sec- 
ond kind is the turning of Yerse into Prose. 

2. What must we know, that we may transpose Verse ? 
We must know the four parts of Grammar; Orthography, 
Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. 

3. What does the Transposition of Verse mean? The 
Transposition of Verse means turning Verse into Prose. 

4. What does the Transposition of Prose mean ? The 
Transposition of Prose means turning Prose into Verse. 

5. For what do some Grammarians use Transposition of 
Verse ? Some Grammarians use the Transposition of Poetry 
to prepare language for Parsing. 

6. What is the first reason against this practice? The 
first reason is, that Verse is the more primitive, original and 
natural form of language and hence is not dependent upon 
Prose. 

7. What is the second reason against it? The second 
reason is ; that, to transpose the elements rightly, we must 
understand the meaning beforehand and hence nothing is 
gained. One ; who did not understand the meaning of a 
stanza, as it stood ; would be in a poor situation to bring out 
that meaning by Transposition. 

8. For what purpose only do we transpose verse ? In 
order that we may learn its structure and be better able 
either to read, write or recite verse. 

9. Of what do we deprive verse in Transposition ? Of 
Ehyme, of Ehythm, and of the poetical arrangement of its 
grammatical elements. 

10. Transpose this stanza. 

" My soul He doth restore again, 
And me to walk doth make 
Within the paths of righteousness 
E'en for His own name's sake." 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 379 

Transposed. 

He doth again restore my soul and doth make me to walk 
within the paths of righteousness, even for His own name's 
sake. Or, " He restoreth my soul, He maketh me to walk in 
the paths of righteousness for His name's sake." 

11. Transpose this stanza. 

" It was as sweet an Autumn day, 
As ever shone on Clyde 
And Lanark's orchards, all the way, 
Put forth their golden pride." 

Transposed. 

It was as sweet an Autumn day, as ever shone on Clyde, 
and Lanark's orchards put forth their golden pride all the 
way. 

12. Transpose this stanza. 

" This Paradise I give thee. Count it thine 
To till and keep and of the fruit to eat." 

Transposed. 

I give thee this Paradise. Count it thine to till and keep 
and to eat of the fruit. 

13. Transpose this stanza. 

Softly now the light of day 
Fades upon our sight away ; 
Free from care from labor free 
Lord I would commune with Thee. 

14. Transpose the selections for Scanning. 

15. Transpose the Lord's Prayer from Verse into Prose. 



380 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

APPLICATION OF THE PKECEDING LESSONS. 

LESSON XVIII. 

Scanning. 

1. What is Scanning? Scanning is showing the meas- 
urement of Poetry. 

2. Give the scheme for Scanning a stanza and study it 
until it is perfectly mastered. 

Scheme for Scanning. 

/. Write the stanza. 

2. Inclose each foot in bars like those used in music, 
j. Accent each foot. 

4. Put on the Oaesural and Final Pauses. 

5. Give and explain the formula. 

6. Tell the metre. 

7. Scan the stanza, repeating clearly the feet in rapid suc- 
cession and counting them on the fingers. 

3. Give a stanza to be scanned by this scheme. 

" A little lord, engaged in play, 
Carelessly threw his ball away ; 
So far beyond the brook it flew, 
(Thaf) His lordship knew not what to do." 

4. What three things have been done with this stanza ? 
Its words have been analyzed under Orthography, its sen- 
tences have been parsed under Etymology and Syntax com- 
bined and its sentences have been analyzed under Sentence- 
analysis. 

5. What is now to be done with it ? The verses of this 
stanza are to be scanned by Prosody, according to the 
scheme for Scanning. 

LESSON XIX. 

Scanning Continued. 
Here scan the last stanza by the scheme for scanning. 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 381 

1. Write the stanza. 

" A little lord, engaged in play, 
Carelessly threw his ball away ; 
So far beyond the brook it flew, 
His lordship knew not what to do." 

2. Inclose each foot in bars like those used in music. 

| A lit | tie lord, | en-gaged | in play, | 
| Oare-less | ly threw | his ball | a- way ; | 
| So far | be-yond | the brook | it flew, | 
| His lord | ship knew | not what | to do. | 

3. Accent each foot. The accent is on the second syl- 
lable of each foot. 

| A lit 7 | tie lord 7 , | engaged 7 | in play 7 , | 
| Careless 7 | ly threw 7 | his ball 7 | away 7 ; | 
| So far 7 | beyond 7 | the brook 7 | it flew 7 , | 
| His lord 7 | ship knew 7 | not what 7 | to do 7 . | 

4. Put on the Final and Caesural Pauses. The first 
caesura is after lord, the second after threw, the third after 
beyond and the fourth after knew. 

| A lit 7 | tie lord 7 , | engaged 7 | in play 7 , | 
| Careless 7 | ly threw 7 | his ball 7 | away 7 ; | 
| So far 7 | beyond 7 | the brook 7 | it flew 7 , | 
| His lord 7 | ship knew 7 | not what 7 | to do 7 . | 

5. Add and explain the formula. The formula is uaXj. 
U stands for a short or unaccented syllable ; a for a long one 
or one, that is accented, and "4" for the number of sylla- 
bles in a verse. 



382 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

\ \ 

| A lit 7 | tie lord 7 , | engaged 7 | in play 7 , | 

| Careless 7 | ly threw 7 | his ball 7 | away 7 ; | 

| So far 7 | beyond 7 | the brook 7 | it flew 7 , | 

| His lord 7 | ship knew 7 | not what 7 | to do 7 . | 

Formula uaX4- 

6. Tell the metre. This Poetry is Iambic Tetrameter or 
Long Metre, because the stanza consists of four Iambic 
Tetrameter verses. 

7. Scan the stanza by repeating clearly the feet in rapid 
succession and counting them on the fingers. 



LESSON XX. 

Keview the last lesson again and again until it is abso- 
lutely mastered. 

LESSON XXI. 

Copy and scan this sentence : 

| Though now 7 | to death 7 | I yield 7 | and am 7 | his due 7 , | 

v v 

| All that 7 | of me 7 | can die 7 ; | yet, that 7 | debt paid 7 , | 

| Thou wilt 7 | not leave 7 1 me in 7 | the loath 7 1 some grave 7 | 

| His prey 7 | nor suf 7 | fer my 7 | unspot 7 | ted soul 7 | 

| For ev 7 | er, | with 7 | corrup 7 | tion, there 7 | to dwell 7 | 

| But I 7 | shall rise 7 | victo 7 | rious and 7 | subdue 7 | 

| My van 7 | quisher 7 , | spoiFd of 7 | hisvaun 7 | ted spoil 7 . | 

Formula uaXs- 



•Paradise Lost, III; 245. 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 383 

SELECTIONS FOE DRILLING IN SCANNING. 

Here now go over every stanza and verse of the following 
selections for Scanning as in the eighteenth lesson until they 
are perfectly mastered. 

FIRST SELECTION. 

The Little Lord and the Farmer. 

A little lord, engaged in play, 
Carelessly threw his ball away ; 
So far beyond the brook it flew, 
His lordship knew not what to do. 

By chance there passed a farmer's boy, 
Whistling a tune in childish joy ; 
His frock was patched, his hat was old 
But his manly heart was very bold. 

" You, little chap, pick up my ball ;" 
His saucy lordship loud did call ; 
He thought it useless to be polite 
To one, whose clothes were in such a plight. 

"Do it yourself for want of me," 
Replied the boy quite manfully ; 
Then quietly he passed along, 
Whistling aloud his favorite song. 

His little lordship furious grew, 
For he was proud and hasty too ; 
" I'll break your bones," he rudely cries, 
While fire (did) flash from both his eyes. 

Now, heedless quite which way he took, 
He tumbled plump into the brook 
And, as he fell, he lost his bat 
And next he dropped his beaver hat. 



384 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Come help me out," enraged he cried 
But the sturdy farmer thus replied; 

" Alter your tone my little man 
And then I'll help you all, I can. 

There are few things ; I would not dare 
For gentlemen, who speak me fair, 
But, for rude words, I do not choose 
To wet my feet and soil my shoes." 

" Please help me out," his lordship said, 
" I'm sorry I was so ill-bred ;" 
" 'Tis all forgot," replied the boy 
And gave his hand in honest joy. 

The offered hand his lordship took 
And soon came safely from the brook ; 
His looks were downcast and aside, 
For he felt ashamed of his silly pride. 

The farmer brought his ball and bat 
And wiped the wet from his dripping hat 
And mildly said, as he went away, 
" Remember the lesson you've learned to-day. 

Be kind to all, you chance to meet 
In field or lane or crowded street ; 
Anger and pride are both unwise, 
Vinegar never catches flies." 

SECOND SELECTION. 

Looking to Jesus. 

! eyes, that are weary, and hearts, that are sore ; 
Look off unto Jesus and sorrow no more : 
The light of his countenance shineth so bright ; 
That, here as in heaven, there need be no night. 



SCANNING OK PROSODY. 385 

When looking to Jesus, I go not astray ; 
My eyes are upon him, he shows me the way : 
The path may seem dark, as he leads me along, 
But, following Jesus, I cannot go wrong. 

Still looking to Jesus, oh ! may I be found, 
When Jordan's dark waters encompass me round ; 
They'll bear me away in his presence to be 
And see Him still nearer, whom always I see. 

Then, then I shall know the full beauty and grace 
Of Jesus my Lord, when I stand face to face ; 
Shall know, how his love went before me each day 
And wonder, that ever my eyes turned away. 

THIRD SELECTION. 
Redemption. 

He asked but all the heavenly choir stood mute 
And silence was in heaven. On man's behalf 
Patron or intercessor none appear'd : 
Much less; that durst, upon his own head, draw 
The deadly forfeiture and ransom set. 
And now, without redemption, all mankind 
Must have been lost, adjudged to death and Hell 
By doom severe ; had not the Son of God, 
In whom the fulness dwells of love divine, 
His dearest mediation thus renew'd. 

"Father, thy word is pass'd, man shall find grace. 
And shall grace not find means ; that finds her way, 
The speediest of thy winged messengers, 
To visit all thy creatures and to all 
Oomes unprevented, unimplored, unsought ? 
Happy for man, so coming ; he her aid 
Can never seek, once dead in sins and lost. 
Atonement for himself or offering meet, 
Indebted and undone, hath none to bring. 



386 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

Behold me then, me for him ; life for life 

I offer : on me let thine anger fall : 

Account me man ; I, for his sake, will leave 

Thy bosom and this glory next to thee, 

Freely put off, and for him lastly die 

Well pleased. On me let Death wreak all his rage : 

Under his gloomy power I shall not long 

Lie vanquished ; thou hast given me to possess 

Life in myself forever, by thee I live. 

Though now to Death I yield and am his due ; 

All, that of me can die : yet, that debt paid, 

Thou wilt not leave me in the loathsome grave 

His prey nor suffer my unspotted soul 

For ever, with corruption, there to dwell 

But I shall rise victorious and subdue 

My vanquisher, spoiled of his vaunted spoil. 

Death his death's wound shall then receive and stoop 

Inglorious, of his mortal sting disarmed. 

I, through the ample air in triumph high, 

Shall lead Hell captive, maugre Hell, and "show 

The powers of darkness bound. Thou, at the sight 

Pleased, out of Heaven shalt look down and smile; 

While, by thee raised, I ruin all my foes 

Death last and with his carcass glut the grave. 

Then, with the multitude of my redeem'd, 

Shall enter Heaven, long absent, and return, 

Father, to see thy face, wherein no cloud 

Of anger shall remain but peace assured 

And reconcilement : wrath shall be no more 

Thenceforth but in thy presence joy entire." 

—Paradise Lost, Bk. Ill, 217. 



SCANNING OR PROSODY. 387 



CONCLUSION. 



The pupils have now learned to master by study and to 
express to others by the four running drills all the 
facts and principles of Orthography, Etymology, Syntax 
and Prosody contained in the most complex language. 
They should now practice these four drills separately and 
in their proper order upon the following selection until 
not a difficulty remains. They should then give variety to 
their acquirements by extending their mastering re- 
search to other poetry. While fresh, they should collect, 
read and study all the great English poets with the History 
of English Literature. They should then attempt to write 
poetry and thereby test, whether or not they are endowed by 
nature with poetic inspiration. 

" to whom thus adam fervently reply'd 
o woman best are all things as the will 
of god ordain'd them his creating hand 
nothing imperfect or deficient left 
of all that he created much less man 
or aught that might his happy state secure 
secure from outward force within himself 
the danger lies yet lies within his power 
against his will he can receive no harm 
but god left free the will for what obeys 
reason is free and reason he made right 
but bid her well beware and still erect 
lest by some fair appearing good surpriz'd 
she dictate false and misinform the will 
to do what god expressly hath forbid 
not then mistrust but tender love enjoins 
that i should mind thee oft and mind thou me 
firm we subsist yet possible to swerve 
since reason not impossibly may meet 
some specious object by the foe suborn'd 
and fall into deception unaware 
not keeping strictest watch as she was warn'd 




388 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

seek not temptation then which to avoid 

were better and most likely if from me 

thou sever not trial will come unsought 

wouldst thou approve thy constancy approve 

first thy obedience th' other who can know 

not seeing thee attempted who attest 

but if thou think trial unsought may find 

us both securer than thus warn'd thou seem'st 

go for thy stay not free absents thee more 

go in thy native innocence rely 

on what thou hast of virtue summon all 

for god towards thee hath done his part do thine" 

— Paradise Lost, IX, 343. 



INDEX. 



A, 29, 54. 

Accent, acute, 343, 382. 

Grave, 369, 384. 

Primary, 343. 

Secondary, 343. 
Adjectives, 112, 220, 312. 

Descriptive, 113. 

Designative, 113, 116. 

Comparison of, 114. 

Scheme for, 212. 
Adverbs, 156, 215, 313. 

Kinds of, 156. 

Temporal, 157. 

Local, 157. 

Causal, 157. 

Modal, 157. 

Negative, 158. 

Affirmative, 158. 

Interrogative, 158. 

Degree, 159. 

Conjunctive, 159. 

Expletive, 161. 

List of, 162. 

Scheme for, 209. 

Comparison of, 160. 
Affixes, 178. 

Amphibrach verse, 358. 
Analysis, 290. 

of Words, 76. 

Scheme for, 84. 

of syllables, 77. 
Scheme for, 77. 

Meaning of, 76. 

of sentence, 305, 307. 
Scheme for, 304. 

of element, 308. 
Scheme for, 304. 
Anapestic verse, 355. 
Antecedent, 101. 
Aou etc., 54, 56, 61, 
Article, 117. 
Articulate sound, 14. 
Aspirate, 25. 



B, 29, 54. 
Bars, 347, 381. 
Blackboard, v, 325. 
Blackstone, 375. 
Blank verse, 373. 
Butler, 875. 

C, 30, 54, 60, 61. 
Campbell, 363. 
Capitals, Rules for, 64, 65. 
Case, 96. 

Nominative, 97, 198. 

Possessive, 97, 198. 

Objective, 97, 199. 

Absolute, 97, 200. 
Ch, 46, 54, 55. 
Choice of words, 372. 
Cipher alphabets, 17. 
Class of letters, 17, 54, 55. 
Clauses, Subordinate, 276. 

Subject, 277. 

Appositive, 278. 

Predicate, 278. 

Correlative, 278. 

Relative or Pronominal, 278. 

Interrogative, 278. 

Objective, 279. 

Concessive, 279. 

Conditional, 279. 

Consecutive, 280. 

Comparative, 280. 

Final, 280. 

Modal, 280. 

Causal, 280. 

Temporal, 280. 

Local, 280. 

Composition of,* 283-8. 
Column, 21. 
Common form, 129. 
Comparison of adverbs, 160. 

Ascending, 161. 

Descending, 161. 

Irregular, 161. 



390 



INDEX. 



Of adjectives, 114. 

Ascending, 115, 116. 

Descending, 115, 116. 

Irregular, 116. 
Complement, 306. 
Composite verse, 356. 
Compound sounds, 16. 
Comprehensive, iii, vii. 
Conclusion, 387. 
Conjugation, 128. 

Forms of, 129. 
Conjunction, 169, 217. 

Co-ordinate, 217. 

Copulative, 170. 

Disjunctive, 170. 

Correlative, 170. 

Subordinate, 171. 

Adverbial, 209, 210. 
Conjunctive adverbs, 160. 
Consonants, 24. 
Connectives, 171. 

Local, 171. 

Temporal, 171. 

Causal, 171. 

Modal, 171. 

Final, 171. 

Comparative, 171. 

Consecutive, 172. 

Conditional, 173. 

Concessive, 173. 

Pronominal, 173. 

List of, 175, 

Connection, 184. 

Nine points of, 191, 237. 
Continuous form, 129. 
Crystal, iii, 262. 

D, 31, 54, 55, 61. 
Dactylic verse, 353. 
Declension, 98. 

Of nouns, 98. 

Of pronouns, 102, 106, 108. 
Degree, positive, 114. 

Comparative, 114. 

Superlative, 114. 
Derivation, 176. 

Home, 176. • 

Foreign, 181. 
Diagram, of pronouns, 100. 

of orthography, 16, 20, 54. 
Diacritical marks, 19, 23, 53. 
Diphthongs, 27, 50, 54. 
Digraphs, 27, 54, 55,56. 



Dimeter, 346. 

Iambic, 349. 

Trochaic, 351. 

Dactylic, 354. 

Anapestic, 356. 

Amphibrach, 359. 
Dissyllables, 67, 342. 
Double consonants, 24, 44, 54 etc. 
Drilling and Drills, v, 86, 226, 304, 337, 



E, 32, 54. 

Ea etc., 54, 61. 

Eau etc., 52, 54. 

Eight lessons, 250 to 265. 

Elegy, 365. 

Elementary sounds, 16, 55, 56. 

Elements, 25l. 

Simple, 251, 265. 

Complex, 256, 265. 

Compound, 252, 265. 

Absolute, 253. 

Subject, 208, 254. 

Predicate, 256, 312. 

Adjective, 257, 310. 

Adverbial, 258, 313. 

Objective, 260, 313. 

combined, 261. 

of first class, 270. 

of second class, 271. 

of third class, 274, 281, 283. 

Composition of, 265. 

Limitation of, 289. 
Emphatic Form, 129. 
Emphasis, 243. 
Etymology, 13. 

F, 32, 54, 55, 60. 
Feet, 343, 346, 381. 

kinds of, 346. 
Form of letters, 17. 
Formula, 358, 361. 
Fringe, analysis of, 78. 

G, 33, 54, 61. 
Gender, 94. 
Genus, 290. 
Genera, 290. 
General, 290. 
Generalization, 290. 

Gh etc., 44 etc., 48, 54, 55, 61. 
Government, 184, 232. 

Nine points of, 185, 233. 
Grammar, 13. 
Gray, 365. 



INDEX. 



391 



H, 34, 54. 
Heptameter, 346. 

Iambic, 350. 

Trochaic, 352. 

Dactylic, 355. 

Anapestic, 357. 

Amphibrach, 360. 
Heroic verse, 305. 
Hexameter, 346. 

Iambic, 350. 

Trochaic, 352. 

Dactylic, 354. 

Anapestic, 357. 

Amphibrach, 359. 
Homer, 364, 375. 

I, 34, 54, 59, 61. 
Iambic verse, 347, 377. 
Inarticulate sound, 14. 
Incidents of letters, 17. 
Inspiration, 372. 
Interrogative form, 129. 
Interjection, 175. 

List of, 176. 

Scheme for, 209. 

J, 35, 54, 55, 56. 

K, 36, 54, 55, 56. 

Key to pronunciation, 



2,54. 



L, 36, 54, 55, 56. 
Labials, 15, 26, 54, 55, 56. 
Lessons, The eight, 250 to 265. 
Letter, 16, 54, 55, 56. 

Names, 35, 54, 61. 

Forms, 54, 55, 56, 63. 

Sounds, 29, 54, 55, 56. 

Classes, 29, 54, 55, 56. 
Letters and letter groups, 19, 55. 
Limitation, 184. 

Nine points of, 188, 235. 

of elements, 112, 113, 289. 
Line, 345. 

Linguals, 15, 26, 54, 55. 
Linguo-dental, 15, 26, 54, 55. 
Linguo-nasal, 15, 26, 54, 55 
Lips, 15. 

List of letters, 19, 55. 
Longfellow, 361. 
Lungs, 14. 

M, 36, 54, 55, 56. 
Marks, 19, 23. 



Metre, 346, 376, 380. 

Long, 360, 376, 380. 

Short, 361, 377, 380. 

Common, 360, 376, 380. 
Milton, 360, 364, 373. 
Mind, 264, 374. 
Modifiers, direct, 262. 

indirect, 262. 

Classes of, 270, 271. 
Monometer, 346. 

Iambic, 348. 

Trochaic, 351. 

Dactylic, 353. 

Anapestic, 356. 

Amphibrach, 358. 
Monosyllables, 67, 342. 
Mood, 123, 136, 146. 

Indicative, 123, 136, 146. 

Subjunctive, 123, 201, 136, 416. 

Potential, 124. 136, 146. 

Imperative, 124, 136, 146. 

Infinitive, 125, 135, 136. 

Participle, 125, 136, 146. 

N, 15, 37, 54. 
Names of letters, 17. 
Ng, 44 etc., 48, 54. 
Nose, 15. 
Noun, 91, 99, 212. 

Common, 91. 

Proper, 91. 

Abstract, 93. 

Concrete, 93. 

Collective, 93. 
Number, 95. 
Numerals, 118. 

O, 38, 54, 60. 
Oa etc., 51, 55. 
Object, 92. 
Octameter, 346. 

Iambic, 350. 

Trochaic, 352. 

Dactylic, 355. 

Anapestic, 357. 

Amphibrach, 360. 
Order of elements, 301. 
Organs, of sound, 14. 

of speech, 15. 
Orthography, 13. 

Diagram of, 20, 54. 

P, 15, 39, 54. 
Palate, 15. 
Palato-nasal, 15, 26, 54. 



392 



INDEX. 



Palatals, 15, 26, 54. 
Parts of speech, 91. 
Paradise Lost, 360. 
Paradigm, 132, 136. 
Parsing, 208. 
Participle, 136, 162, 217. 

Properties of, 162. 

Present, 138, 139, 163. 

Past, 138, 391, 164. 

Preterit, 127, 137. 

Perfect, 127, 137. 
Part, First, 14. 

Second, 90. 

Third, 231. 

Fourth, 342. 
Pentameter, 346. 

Iambic, 349. 

Trochaic, 352. 

Dactylic, 354. 

Anapestic, 357. 

Amphibrach, 359. 
Penult, 358. 
Permutations, 29. 
Person, 93. 

Person and number, 128, 136. 
Ph, 46, 54, 55, 56, 61. 
Phrases, Adverbial, 159. 

Prepositional, 165, 271. 

Infinitive, 272, 273, 274. 
Plurals, rules for, 95. 
Poe, 361. 

Poetry, 342, 373, 376, 381. 
Polysyllables, 67, 343. 
Predicate, Verb, 136, 256. 

Noun, 306. 

Participle, 306. 

Adjective, 306. 
Prefixes, 177. 
Preposition, 165, 218. 

Object of, 165. 

Relation of, 166. 

List of, 168, 169. 
Prepositional phrase, 165, 311. 
Principal parts, 131, 148. 
Pronouns, 100, 215, 314. 

Diagram of, 100. 

Personal, 102, 215. 

Adjective, 104, 223. 

Connective or Relative, 100, 107, 
222, 223. 
Properties, 93. 
Proposition, 267, 276. 
Prose, 342, 372. 
Prosody, 13, 392. 
Psychology, 264. 



Punctuation, 240. 

Application of, 291. 

Rules for, 250 to 265. 
Pyrrhic, 355. 

Q, 39, 54, 55, 56, 60. 
Qu, 54, 60. 
Qualities, 93. 
Quantity, 342. 

R, 40, 54. 
Rectangle, 21. 
Relations, 195, 231, 318. 
Rhyme, 365, 373. 

Perfect, 365. 

Imperfect, 365, 367. 

Final, 365. 

Middle, 365, 370. 

First variety of, 370. 
Second variety of, 371. 

Single, 367, 371. 

Double, 368, 371. 

Triple, 368, 371. 
Rhythm, 345. 
Rules, of syntax, 197, 238. 

for Punctuation, 250 to 265. 

S, 40, 54. 

Sh, 49, 54. 

Scanning, 341, 380, 381. 

Scheme for, Syllable, 77. 

Word, 84. 

Sentence, 304. 

Element, 304. 

Verse, 380. 
Scott, 363. 
Seal, 81. 

Selection of words, 372. 
Selections for, Word-analysis, I 

Parsing, 226. 

Sentence-analysis, 337. 

Scanning, 383. 



Sentence-analysis, 304. 
Sentence, 240, 307. 

Simple, 240, 307. 

Complex, 240, 275, 315. 

Compound, 240, 307. 
Sh, 49, 54, 55. 
Shakespeare, 364. 
Solemn form, 129. 
Sounds, of letters, 17. 

Articulate, 14. 

Inarticulate, 14. 

Elementary, 16. 

Compound, 16. 



INDEX. 



393 



Southey, 364. 
Species, 290. 
Spelling, Alphabetic, 69, 72. 

Exercises in, 74. 

Rules for, 72. 

Phonetic, 75, 77, 84. 

Scheme for, 75, 77, 84. 
Spondee, 355. 
Square, 21, 54. 
Stanza, 344, 381. 
Subject, 308, 254. 
Subsequent, 101. 
Substitutes, 56, 57. 
Substance, 92. 
Subvocal, 25, 54. 
Suffixes, 179. 
Supplement, 123, 124, 201. 
Syllable, 67, 77. 

Long, 341, 382. 

Short. 341, 382. 
Syllabification, 67, 70. 
Synopsis of verb, 129. 
Syntax Tree, 324. 
Syntax, 13, 183, 231. 

Rules of, 197, 238. 
Synthesis, 290. 

T, 41, 54, 55, 56. 

Table of letters. 19, 55. 

Substitutes, 56, 57. 
Taste, 341. 
Teeth, 15. 
Tenses, 125, 136. 

Analysis of, 143. 
Term, general, 290. 

universal, 290. 
Tetrameter, 346. 

Iambic, 349. 

Trochaic, 352. 

Dactylic, 354. 

Anapestic, 357. 

Amphibrach, 359. 
Th etc., 44, 54, 55, 56. 
The eight lessons, 250 to 265. 
Time, Grand Divisions of, 125. 
Tongue, 15. 
To Be, 132. 
To Kill, 136. 

Synopsis of, 146. 
Transposition, of prose, 372. 

• of verse, 378. 
Tree, Syntax, 324. 
Tribrach, 355. 
Trigraph, 28, 52, 54, 55. 
Trimeter, 364. 

Iambic, 349. 



Trochaic, 352. 

Dactylic, 354. 

Anapestic, 357. 

Amphibrach, 359. 
Triphthongs, 27, 54, 55, 57. 
Trisyllables, 342. 
Trochaic verse, 350. 
Type, Kinds of, 63, 64. 

U, 41, 54, 60. 

Ui etc., 50, 55. 
Uoy etc., 52, 54, 55, 56. 
Ultima, ,356. 
Universal terms, 390. 

V, 42, 54, 55, 56. , 
Veil, analysis of, 80. 
Verb, Transitive, 120, 136. 

Intransitive, 121. 

Regular, 121, 136. 

Irregular, 121, 148. 

Defective, 121. 

Redundant, 122. 

Properties of, 122. 

Neuter, 132, 306. 
Verse, 345, 381. 

Catalectic, 361. 

Hypercatalectic, 362. 

Acatalectic, 362. 

Composite, 356. 
Versification, 341, 346. 
Virgil, 364. 
Vocal Cords, 14. 
Voice, Active, 122. 

Passive, 122. 
Vowels, 24, 54, 55, 56. 

W, 43, 54, 55, 56, 60. 
Webster, 23. 
Wh, 47, 54, 55. 
Wycherly, 364. 
Wight, 362. 
Worcester, 23. 
Word, 68. 

Analysis of, 77, 84. 

Primitive, 90. 

Derivative, 90. 

Simple, 90. 

Compound, 90. 
Word-analysis, 77, 84. 

X, 43, 54, 61. 
Y, 43, 54, 59. 
Young, 373. 

Z, 44, 54, 55, 56. 



ERRATA. 

In Lesson LXII, Question 19, Page 160; for "Adverbial Con- 
junctives " read Adverbial Conjunctions. 

On page 299 third line from bottom ; for " weight " read might 
and, on same page, ninth line from bottom; for " around " read 
about. 



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